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FIELD   PRACTICE 

An  Inspection  Manual 

FOR     PROPERTY    OWNERS,    FIRE    DEPARTMENTS 
AND     INSPECTION     OFFICES 

COVERING 

COMMON     FIRE    HAZARDS    AND    THEIR 
SAFEGUARDING 

AND 

FIRE    PROTECTION    AND    UPKEEP 
I    ,193-«^\FDITiaN 

^ — J — '-TT^— . 

PRICE,  $1.50 


PUBLISHED    BY 

NATIONAL    FIRE     PROTECTION     ASSOCIATION 
'i       87    MILK    STREET,   BOSTON,   MASS. 


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Copyright  1914 

BY 

National  Fire  Protection  Association 


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FIRE   PROTECTION   AND   ITS   BROAD  MEANING 

Fire  protection  has  a  threefold  significance  and  embraces: 
First,  the  means  of  safeguarding  or  abolishing  causes  which 
originate  fire;  second,  the  provision  of  means  which  may  con- 
fine fire  to  the  space  in  which  it  originates,  and  third,  the 
necessary  means  of  adequate  fire  extinguishment. 

Careful  study  should  be  made  of  hazards  or  the  sources  of 
fire  and  their  safeguarding. 

Good  construction,  reasonable  heights,  moderate  areas,  and 
protection  from  outward  exposure,  will  aid  in  the  confinement 
of  fire  to  a  limited  space. 

The  necessary  means  of  fire  extinguishment,  always  in  readi- 
ness for  effective  service,  is  the  final  reserve  relied  upon  when 
oversight  or  opportunity  to  prevent  the  hazard  from  starting 
fire  has  failed. 


M88233 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arcinive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

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http://www.archive.org/details/fieldpracticeinsOOnatiriGh 


National  Fire  Protection  Association 


FIELD  PRACTICE 

AN 

INSPECTION   MANUAL 

FOR  USE  BY 

Property  O^^ners,  Fire  Departments 
and  Inspection  Offices 


FOREWORD 

There  is  an  imperative  and  increasing  demand  for  an  official 
publication  which  may  serve  as  a  guide  or  Handbook  for 
Property  Owners,  Municipalities,  Fire  Departments,  Inspection 
Offices  and  Factory  Superintendents,  which  embodies  recom- 
mendations necessary  for  the  safeguarding  of  commonly  found 
fire  hazards  and  the  maintenance  and  upkeep  of  fire  protection 
appliances. 

The  mere  fact  that  fire  hazards  may  have  been  safeguarded 
and  fire  protection  may  have  been  installed  originally  in  full 
accordance  with  standard  requirements,  is  no  guaranty  that  these 
conditions  will  remain.  Proper  upkeep  is  necessary — and  fre- 
quent reinspection,  test  and  improvement  of  appliances  are  re- 
quired to  insure  operating  efficiency  at  all  times. 

The  brief  summary  herein  of  the  common  inherent  hazards 
and  their  safeguarding  and  the  indicated  functional  principles 
of  fire  protection  appliances  and  means  of  fire  prevention, 
should  equip  this  publication  to  serve  as  a  guide  for  laymen  and 
inspectors  to  follow  in  the  field.  It  covers  the  more  essential 
features  to  which  especial  attention  should  be  given  in  order 
that  the  efficiency  of  installations  may  be  maintained. 

The  recommendations  contained  herein  are  made  so  far  as 
possible  in  non-technical    language  in  order  that  anyone  respon- 


6  FIELD     PRACTICE 

sible  for  the  safeguarding  of  hazards  and  the  maintenance  of  fire 
protection  of  properties  may  readily  understand  the  same. 

This  publication  does  not  conflict  with  the  standards  of  this 
Association  as  published  and  promulgated  by  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  Full  information  relating  to 
standards  may  be  obtained  in  those  publications  to  which  refer- 
ences are  made  herein. 

This  publication  relates  particularly  to  the  proper  upkeep 
and  maintenance  of  installations  in  service,  all  of  which 
require  constant  care  and  inspection. 

In  the  treatment  of  commonly  found  fire  hazards,  no  attempt 
is  made  to  deal  with  the  special  hazards  of  manufacturing,  except 
in  so  far  as  many  of  the  ordinary  fire  hazards  contribute  to  the 
creation  of  special  ones.  Information  on  these  subjects  may  be 
obtained  from  other  publications  of  this  Association. 

This  publication  embodies  the  opinions  of  many  who  are 
experienced  in  field  inspection  work,  and  is  a  compilation  of  the 
ideas  and  practices  mainly  followed  by  them. 

It  has  received  in  its  preparation  careful  treatment  not  only 
by  the  special  committee  appointed  by  the  Executives  to  under- 
take its  compilation,  but  suggestions  and  criticisms  from  all 
others  who  have  had  opportunities  to  read  the  advance  copy. 


CONTEINTS 

BT 
SUBJECTS  AND  PAGES. 

Fire  Protection  and  Its  Broad  Meaning 3 

Foreword 5 

To  the  Inspector  and  Property  Owner...„ 11 

The  Underwriters' Laboratories  and  The  Label  Service 15 


SECTION  ONE. 

Common  Fire  Hazards  and  their  Safeguarding. 

I.    Lighting  Hazards 19 

Electrical  Installations. 

Gas: — Public  Supply,  artificial  and  natural. 

Acetylene  Gas. 

Compressed  or  Liquid  Gases. 

Kerosene  and  Kerosene  Vapor. 

Gasoline  Vapor. 

Cahdles,  Lanterns  and  Torches. 

n.    Heating  Hazards 33 

(a)  Radiation  and  Conduction  of  Heat. 

Effect  of  Continuous  Heat  upon  Heating  Devices. 

Furnaces  and  Heating  Devices  of  a  Fixed  or  Stationary  Character, 
Grading,  Temperatures,  Representative  Types,  Setting  and 
Mounting  and  Clearance,  and  General  Features  of  Installation. 

Furnace  Stacks,  Chimneys  and  Flues. 

Hand  or  Movable  Furnaces  or  Heaters. 
{b)  Miscellaneous  Stationary   Heating-  Devices  Requiring  Special 
Treatment. 

Kitchen  Ranges  and  Their  Ventilation. 

Hot  Air  Ducts  and  Heat  Conveyors. 

Stoves,  Large  Coal,  Wood  Burning  and  Busheling. 

Hot  Air,  Hot  Water  and  Low  Pressure  Steam  Heating  Furnaces. 

Ductless  Heating  and  Ventilating  and  Dry  Closet  Systems. 

Natural  Gas  Floor  Heaters. 

Steam  Mains  and  Steam  Pipes. 

Autogenous  Welding, 

Core  Ovens. 

Forges. 


FIELD     PRACTICE 

Cupolas. 

Melting  and  Rendering  Kettles,  etc. 
Incubators  and  Brooders. 
Fruit  Ripening. 
Bleaching, 
Grain  Bleachers. 
Japan  and  Enameling  Ovens. 
Dry  Rooms. 

Lumber  Drying  and  Dry  Kilns. 
Steam  Chests  and  Bending. 
Coffee  and  Peanut  Roasters. 
Smoke  Houses, 
(c)    Commonly  Found  Miscellaneous  Hazards. 
Dip  Tanks. 
Plating. 

Blower  Systems,  for  Heating,  Ventilating,  etc. 
Picker  Rooms. 
Buffing  Wheels, 
Cleaning  Machinery, 
Corn  Shellers, 
Drip  Cups  and  Pans. 
Testing  by  Gasoline, 
Mixing  and  Compounding, 
Explosives  and  Fireworks. 
Fixed  Ammunition. 
Egg  Candling, 

Ashes,  Cuttings,  Clippings,  etc. 
Workmen's  Clothes, 
Oily  Waste  and  Waste  Cans. 


III.    Power  Hazards 

Steam  Boilers. 

Upright  Steam  Boilers. 

Electric  Power, 

Electric  Motors, 

Gas  and  Gasoline  Engines, 

Fuel  Oil  under  Boilers  and  Furnaces  and  for  Domestic  Use. 

Refrigeration. 


IV.    Chemicals,  Paints  and  Oils 

Hazardous  Chemicals,  Paints,  Oils  and  Inflammable  Volatiles. 

Chemicals, 

Chemicals  that  are  rendered  Hazardous  if   Influenced   by  Water  or 

Moisture, 
Sulphur  and  Phosphorus. 
Nitrates  and  Chlorates. 
Picric  Acid. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  •  V 

Nitro-Cellulose  or  Soluble  Gun-Cotton. 

Experimental  Work. 

Inflammable  Volatiles. 

Flash  Point  and  Density  Table. 

Storay:e  and  Handling  of  Inflammable  Volatiles,  Gasoline,  etc. 

Paint  and  Oils. 

Paint  Stock. 

Lacquers. 

Paint  and  Oil  Stock  Room  Precautions. 

V.  Spontaneous  Ignition  and  Dust  Explosions  93 

Spontaneous  Ignition. 

Precautions  to  be  Observed. 

Substances  subject  Thereto. 

Dust  Explosions. 

Coal  Dust. 

Other  Explosive  Dusts. 

Metallic  Powders,  Bronze,  Flashlight. 

Smoke  Explosions. 

VI.  Care  and  Maintenance 107 

Essential  Points  for  Inspector  and  Property  Owner. 

Special  Items:  Waste  Cans. 

Safety  Volatile  Oil  Cans. 

Ash  Cans,  Refuse  Barrels,  Receptacles. 

Metal  Lockers. 

No  Smoking  Precautions. 

Holiday  and  other  Displays  and  Safeguards. 

VII.  Chimneys  and  Flues 117 

Their  Common  Dangers,  Means  of  Safe  Construction,  Repairing  and 
Maintenance. 

VIII.  Dwelling  House  Hazards 127 

Common  Dangers  in  the   Home  and  Means  of  Safeguarding  Them, 

applying  to  Housekeeping,  Matches,  Smoking,  Lighting  Haz- 
ards, Heating  Hazards,  Gasoline  and  Explosives,  Fire  Protec- 
tion, The  Family  Garage,  In  General. 


SECTION  TWO. 

Fire  Protection  and  Upkeep  (Automatic  and  Manual) 

Automatic  Sprinkler  Installations 137 

Functions,  Design  and  Reliability. 
Sprinklers  and  Their  Distribution. 
Feed  Mains  and  Risers. 


10  FIELD     PRACTICE 

Gate  Valves  and  Fittings. 

Clieck  Valves. 

Dry  Pipe  Valves. 

Alarm  Valves  to  Automatic  Sprinkler  Systems. 

Underground  Pipe, 

Water  Supplies  in  Connection  w^ith  Automatic  Sprinklers :    Public  Water 

Supplies,  Gravity. 
Gravity  with  Continuous  Pumping. 
Direct  Pressure  Supply. 
Testing  and  Gauges. 
Fire  Pumps. 
Steam  Fire  Pumps. 
Steam  Boilers. 

Electrically  Driven  Fire  Pumps. 
Rotary  Pumps. 
Gravity  Tanks. 
Pressure  Tanks. 
Steamer  Connections. 
Air  Pumps  and  Combination  Air  Compressor  and  Water  Pumps  for 

Filling  Purposes. 

II.    Fire  Protection  in  General 165 

Yard  Hydrants. 

Hose  and  Equipment  for  Yard  Hydrant  Use. 

Inside  Standpipe  and  Hose  Systems. 

Open  Sprinklers. 

Steam  Jets  and  Dry  Room  Sprinklers. 

Chemical  Fire  Extinguishers  and  Chemical  Engines  on  Wheels. 

Water  Casks  and  Pails. 

Night  Watchman. 

Signaling  Systems,  including  Manual  Fire  Alarm  Systems,  Automatic 
Fire  Alarm  and  Thermostat  Systems,  Automatic  Journal  Alarm, 
Watchmen's  Time.  Recording  Apparatus,  Automatic  Sprinkler 
Alarm  and  Supervisory  Systems,  Local  Sprinkler  Alarm  Sys- 
tems, Water  Motor  Sprinkler  Alarms,  Factory  Alarms. 

Care  of  Fire  Appliances  in  Winter— Cold  Weather  Precautions. 

Maintenance  of  Fire  Doors  and  Shutters. 

Wired  Glass  Windows  with  Metal  Frame  and  Sash. 

Stairways,  Elevators  and  Vertical  Shaft  Enclosures. 

Tarpaulins  and  Blankets. 

Whitewash  Coating  as  a  Fire  Retardant. 

Fireproof  Coating  Mixtures. 

Skids  and  Raised  Platforms. 

Scuppers. 

Index 191 


FIELD     PRACTICE  11 

TO  THE    INSPECTOR    4.ND    FROI7EMT7:   Oyf^SEIl 

Essential  qualifications  for  the  successful  Inspector'afe' thfe 
possession  of  ability  to  recognize  fire  hazards,  defects  and  omis- 
sions when  he  sees  them,  a  logical  and  practical  understanding 
of  how  to  improve  them,  and  persistence  in  securing  necessary 
corrections. 

By  coupling  with  these  qualities  proper  dignity  and  diplo- 
macy in  dealing  with  those  with  whom  he  comes  in  contact, 
every  inspection  should  bring  about  favorable  results. 

In  order  to  gain  a  clear  understanding  of  the  character  of 
the  property  from  a  standpoint  of  hazards  and  protection,  the 
Inspector  should  systematize  his  plan  of  observation.  He 
should  be  able  rapidly  and  completely  to  familiarize  himself  with 
all  features  of  the  property.  The  following  course  is  recom- 
mended, the  items  to  receive  attention  in  the  order  mentioned  : — 

(a)  A  complete  plan  of  the  property  and  its  immediate 
surroundings  should  preferably  be  before  the  Inspector. 

(b)  In  approaching  the  property  the  Inspector  should 
first  observe  it  from  the  outside,  noting  its  general  con- 
struction and  outline.  Particular  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  type  and  condition  of  the  property  in  general. 

(c)  The  Inspector  should  note  the  district  in  which  the 
property  is  located,  its  general  surroundings  and  ex- 
posure, if  any,  from  other  property. 

t^^  (d)  The  grade  and  accessibility  of  approach,  condition 
of  streets,  location  of  public  hydrants  and  fire  alarm 
box,  should  be  noted. 

(e)  Before  entering  the  property  the  Inspector  should 
review  in  his  mind  features  incident  to  its  character 
with  respect  to  occupancy,  processes  and  hazards : 
common  hazards  he  can  anticipate  will  be  there  in  any 
event,  and  he  should  be  prepared  to  find  other  hazards. 

(f)  The  nature  of  product  or  sfock  and  processes 
will  require  analysis.  (If  the  property  is  a  woodworker, 
the  Inspector  must  have  in  mind  hazards  incident  to  that 
class;  if  an  ironworker,  cotton  mill,  distillery,  whole- 
sale grocery,  etc.,  the  hazards  and  processes  usually 
found  therein.) 


12  ,  ;    /  F^EJ.D     PRACTICE 

This  preparation  will  aid  in  facilitating  inside  inspection 
ob3ervatIor:s.-  - 

Tlve  I'nspeetbr  should  enter  the  premises  at  the  main  entrance 
or  office  and  inquire  for  some  one  in  authority;  he  should  intro- 
duce himself  and  state  his  business.  A  card,  badge,  or  other 
means  of  indentification  should  invariably  be  presented,  and  a 
pass  secured  where  the  rules  of  management  may  require  it. 
The  Inspector  should  not  attempt  to  inspect  the  premises  with- 
out official  permission  to  do  so.  He  should  not  be  content  with 
the  permission  of  an  office  boy  or  gate  keeper,  but  should  first 
see  the  official  in  authority. 

Inspector  should  ask  permission  to  inspect  the  premises, 
not  demand  it.  He  should  be  mindful  that  it  is  by  courtesy  of 
the  property  owner  that  the  success  of  his  mission  may  be 
accomplished.  The  Inspector  should  not  become  irritable  if 
obliged  to  wait  before  receiving  attention.  The  man  in  authority 
may  have  other  important  matters  before  him.  An  opportunity 
should  always  be  given  the  property  owner  to  have  a  represen- 
tative accompany  the  Inspector. 

The  Inspector  should  not  enter  into  arguments  or  tech- 
nicalities, nor  give  the  impression  of  petty  fault-finding.  He 
should  instead  make  complete  notes  of  faulty  items,  and  submit 
them  as  a  matter  of  record  to  proper  authority  at  close  of  the 
inspection.  Frequently  property  owners  take  offense  at  recom- 
mendations, and  if  the  Inspector  desires  to  obtain  improvements 
it  is  important  that  his  suggestions  be  presented  in  the  proper 
way.  The  Inspector  should  note  and  record  the  name  and  title 
of  the  official  with  whom  he  talks.  (An  effort  to  create  a  fav- 
orable impression  with  the  property  management  will  materially 
aid  the  Inspector  in  securing  courteous  recognition  and  treat- 
ment. ) 

In  leaving,  the  Inspector  should  thank  the  man  in  authority 
for  the  courtesy  extended  in  permitting  him  to  inspect  the 
property. 

While  all  inspections  are  made  with  the  intention  of  discov- 
ering and  improving  defects  and  omissions  and  securing  improved 
protection  where  desirable,  they  are  made  for  various  important 
purposes:  {a)  Self-inspection  by  the  property  owner,  (d)  In- 
spection by  the   State  or  Municipality  primarily   for  statute  and 


FIELD    PRACTICE  13 

ordinance  violations,  (c)  Inspection  by  the  Fire  Department 
for  public  safety,  (d)  Inspection  by  Fire  Underwriting  interests 
to  determine  the  merits  of  the  risk  for  insurance.  For  this 
reason,  there  can  be  no  one  form  of  inspection  blank  satisfactory 
to  all.  However,  the  items  and  features  of  importance  which 
should  receive  attention  are  herein  listed  in  their  order,  and 
illustrate  the  essential  points  to  cover: — 

(a)  Ownership,  location,  administration,  valuation  (when 
necessary). 

(b)  Construction  and  communications  (openings). 

(c)  Processes  and  occupancy. 

(d)  Common  fire  hazards. 

(e)  Special  hazards. 

(f)  Public  and  private  fire  protection. 

(g)  Watchman  and  signal  service, 
(h)  Care  and  maintenance. 

(i)  Outside  wall  protection  and  exposure. 

(j)  Summary  of  necessary  improvements. 

(k)  Violations  of  law  relating  to  fire  prevention  or 
extinguishment. 

Inspection  may  be  facilitated  by  starting  at  the  roof  of  each 
building,  and  working  downward  to  basement  or  cellar,  making 
a  complete  tour  of  the  building.  This  applies  particularly  in 
instances  where  a  complete  survey  for  record  or  publication  is 
desired.  It  is  a  simple  and  accurate  method  in  which  to  obtain 
and  compile  complete  details.  Regular  inspections  by  the 
property  owner  or  by  the  Fire  Department  are  frequently  made 
by  planned  routes.  A  thorough  reinspection,  however,  should 
occasionally  be  made  in  the  manner  herein  specified.  The 
Inspector  should  visit  all  buildings  comprising  the  property;  he 
should  make  a  survey  of  all  area  ways  and  yard,  noting  all 
necessary  items  for  a  complete  report. 

^  The  actual  testing  out  of  fire  appliances,  devices  and 
apparatus  is  necessary.  Nothing  should  be  taken  for 
granted  J  nor  should  an  Inspector  accept  as  facts  the  state- 
ments of  employees  pertaining  to  the  efficiency  or  relia- 
bility of  important  protective  agencies.  These  iniportant 
features  should  receive  personal  examination  and  test  by 
the  Inspector. 


14  FIELD    PRACTICE 

Features  of  an  unusual  nature  such  as  new  processes  of  a 
dangerous  or  extra  hazardous  character,  or  the  impairment  of 
any  portion  of  the  fire  protection  equipment  (sprinklers  out  of 
commission,  tank  empty,  pump  broken)  should  not  be  accepted 
by  the  Inspector  without  comment.  He  should  notify  the 
inspection  department  having  jurisdiction  and  obtain  cor- 
rection of  such  conditions  before  leaving  the  property, 
unless  he  has  had  specific  instructions  not  to  follow^  this 
course. 

An  intelligent  and  complete  inspection  report  is  of  value, 
and  is  welcomed  by  the  property  owner.  An  immediate  follow- 
up  of  suggested  improvements  is  more  successfully  accomplished 
by  the  Inspector  in  instances  where  he  can  impress  the  property 
owner  with  the  fact  that  he  has  actually  made  a  thorough  in- 
spection. The  Inspector  must  impress  upon  the  property  owner 
above  everything  else  that  he  has  seen  everything  and  is 
acquainted  with  the  property. 

In  preparing  a  detailed  report  or  survey  of  the  property, 
the  Inspector  should  be  absolutely  accurate  in  his  statements,  as 
brief  as  possible  without  omission  of  salient  features,  and 
express  his  comments  in  plain  and  clear  language. 

The  Inspector  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  his  im- 
portant duty  is  to  follow  up  and  secure  the  improvement  of 
features  which  his  inspections  have  indicated  are  in  need  of 
attention. 

Note. — See  also  "  Essential  Points  for  Inspector  and  Property  Owner  " 
under  "  Care  and  Maintenance.^* 


The  separate  individual  pamphlets  referred  to  in  this 
manual  relate  to  the  regulations  prepared  by  the  National 
Fire  Protection  Association  and  adopted  and  published 
by  the  National  Soard  of  Fire  Underw^riters, 


FIELD     PRACTICE  15 

THE  UNDERWRITERS'  LABORATORIES  AND 
THE  LABEL  SERVICE 

Frequent  reference  is  made  herein  to  "approved"  fittings 
and  to  "labeled"  devices. 

The  Underwriters'  Laboratories  (incorporated  under  the 
laws  of  the  State  of  Illinois)  operates,  under  the  direction  of 
the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  a  general  testing 
station  and  Laboratories  at  207  East  Ohio  St.,  Chicago,  and 
testing  stations  for  electrical  goods  at  New  York  and  London. 
At  these  plants  facilities  are  provided  for  the  testing  under 
uniform  and  standard  conditions  of  any  device  or  material 
having  a  bearing  on  the  fire  hazard.  By  means  of  these  facilities 
manufacturers  are  able  to  secure  expert  authoritative  opinions 
as  to  the  merits  of  their  wares,  and  property  owners,  architects, 
officials  and  inspectors  have  ready  access  to  full  and  complete 
data  concerning  appliances  and  materials  which  are  proposed 
for  use  and  which  affect  the  fire  hazard  either  as  possible  sources 
of  fire  or  as  means  of  discovering,  retarding  or  extinguishing 
fires. 

LISTING. 

When  reports  are  issued  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Laboratories' 
investigation  of  sample  wares,  the  names  and  addresses  of  the 
manufacturers  thereof,  together  with  a  brief  description  of  the 
appliances  and  statements  of  the  results  of  the  investigations 
are  bulletined  to  the  various  insurance  organizations  and  com- 
panies subscribing  to  or  co-operating  with  the  Laboratories' 
work.  Whenever  approvals  are  granted  the  names  of  the  man- 
ufacturers and  a  description  of  the  appliances  are  placed  in 
printed  lists,  distributed  freely  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters.  These  lists  are  issued  semi-annually  and  are 
three  in  number: — 

The  List  ol  Fire  Appliances,  covering  devices,  materials 
and  Apparatus  which  may  be  of  service  in  retarding,  extinguish- 
ing or  indicating  fires. 

The  List  of  Electrical  Fittings,  covering  devices  and 
materials  acceptably  safeguarded  for  use  in  electric  lighting  and 
power  equipments. 


16  FIELD    PRACTICE 

The  Liist  of  Gas,  Oil,  Mechanical  and  Chemical  Appli- 
ances, covering  hazardous  devices,  materials  and  apparatus 
which  are  safeguarded  in  an  acceptable  manner. 

The  listing  is  evidence,  therefore,  of  the  manufacturers' 
ability  to  produce  wares  acceptable  from  the  fire  hazard  stand- 
point for  the  use  intended. 

INSPECTIONS  AND  LABELING. 

As  evidence  that  the  devices  and  materials  so  listed  and 
offered  for  use  correspond  to  the  samples  on  which  the  original 
approval  was  based,  the  Laboratories  operate  through  its  many 
branch  offices  a  system  of  inspections  and  labeling. 

For  a  number  of  industries  this  Label  Service  now  includes 
inspections  of  product  at  the  factories,  check  tests  on  labeled 
materials  purchased  in  the  open  market,  service  value  determi- 
nations by  examination  and  re-tests  of  samples  which  have  been 
in  practical  use,  and  schedule  estimates  showing  comparative 
demerits  noted  on  products. 

Where  examinations  and  tests  at  factories  show  goods  to  be 
in  conformity  with  standard  requirements,  labels  are  attached 
to  the  appliance  as  evidence  thereof. 

Certain  classes  of  products  not  at  present  included  in  the 
Label  Service  are  listed  under  trade  names,  catalog  numbers  or 
otherwise.  These  products  are  manufactured  under  agreements 
between  the  manufacturers  and  Underwriters'  Laboratories, 
Inc.,  whereby  the  former  agree  to  reproduce  in  all  details  the 
construction  of  the  samples  originally  approved.  Samples  taken 
from  stock  are  re-examined  at  least  once  a  year. 

Products  labeled  or  listed  as  mentioned  above  are  not 
necessarily  uniform  in  quality  or  merit.  The  labeling  or  listing 
indicates  only  compliance  with  the  Underwriters'  requirements. 


SECTION   ONE 

COMMON   FIRE   HAZARDS  AND  THEIR 
SAFEGUARDING 

CDjninon  hazards  or  common  causes  of  fire  are  those  ortiina*^ 
and  universal  conditions  and  operations  that  niaj  cause  fire,  which 
are  common  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  classes  and  occupancies 
of  property,  irrespective  of  the  special  hazards  of  any  particular 
class  due  directly  to  the  occupancy  or  work  carried  on  therein. 

I.    LIGHTING  HAZARDS 
II.     HEATING  HAZARDS 

(Embracing  also  various  other  local  hazards) 

III.  POWER  HAZARDS.  INCLUDING 

REFRIGERATION 

IV.  CHEMICALS,  PAINTS  AND  OILS 

V.     SPONTANEOUS  IGNITION  AND 

DUST  EXPLOSIONS 

VI.     GENERAL  CARE  AND  MAINTENANCE 

VII.     CHIMNEYS  AND  FLUES 

VIII.     DWELLING  HOUSE  HAZARDS 


LIGHTING  HAZARDS 

1.  Ellectricity. 

2.  Gas  t  Public  Supply,  Artificial  and  Natural. 

3.  Acetylene  Gas. 

4.  Compressed  or  Liquid  Gases. 

5.  Kerosene  and  Kerosene  Vapor. 

6.  Gasoline  Vapor. 

7.  Candles,  Lanterns  and  Torches. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  21 


LIGHTING    HAZARDS 

ArHfi<;}a^  ^'g^^'"g  "^  hnflHings  is  an  absolute  necessity. 
One  or  more  of  the  abovern^uned  methods  will  always  be  found. 
The  lighting  feature  invariaBTy  contributes  a  common  fire  hazard 
to  the  property. 

It  is  possible  to  install  and  maintain  these  various  lighting 
systems  so  that  ordinarily  they  may  be  recognized  as  reasonably 
safe.  The  various  standards  of  installation,  as  recommended  in 
the  pamphlets  published  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers, should  be  followed  in  new  or  original  equipments. 
Their  up-keep  thereafter  requires  constant  attention. 

Frequent  inspections  for  departures  from  the  standard  should 
be  directed  to  the  commonly  found  faults  of  maintenance 
indicated  herein. 

I.    ELECTRICITY 

All  original  inside  installations  and  changes  and  additions 
above  the  ordinary  should  receive  inspection  and  approval  by 
Inspection  Departments  having  jurisdiction.  The  National 
Electrical  Code  is  recognized  as  the  highest  authority  governing 
electrical  installations. 

^The  electrical  fire  hazard  is  of  a  serious  nature;  is  found  in 
buildings  almost  everywhere,  and  it  is  only  with  the  greatest 
care  that  these  equipments  may  be  kept  free  from  deterioration 
and  from  becoming  defectively  dangerous./  The  general  up-keep 
of  the  entire  equipment  must  always  be  good,  and  must  be  given 
frequent  attention  by  property  owners  and  tenants. 

At  reinspections  common  departures  from  the  standard  will 
be  found  in  one  or  more  of  the  following-named  items,  to  which 
items  field  observations  should  be  directed,  viz.  :  — 


22  FIELD     PRACTICE 

(a)  First  ascertain  whether  original  installation  was   in   accordance  with  Na- 

tional Electrical  Code,  and  was  officially  approved.  If  not,  or  if  approval 
is  of  an  antiquated  date,  the  equipment  should  be  passed  upon  by  proper 
authorities  having  local  jurisdiction,  a  thorough  inspection  being 
necessary. 

(b)  If  possible,  check  extensions  and  additions  to  original  installation,  giving 

especial  attention  to  additional  lamps,  cords,  motors,  switches,  fans, 
pressing  irons,  heaters  or  cookers,  vacuum  cleaners,  or  other  attachments. 

(c)  All  wires    must    be  properly   supported,   insulated    and   protected   against 

mechanical  injury,  so  that  system  may  be  kept  free  from  grounds  and 
short  circuits.  Observe  whether  ground  wire  for  conduit  and  converter 
secondaries  remains  undisturbed  and  that  connections  of  ground  wire  to 
conduit  and  to  water  pipe  or  other  grounded  metal  work  are  also  un- 
disturbed and  in  good  order.  Telephone,  bell,  and  other  signal  wires 
should  also  be  observed  and  be  made  free  from  contact  with  electric  light 
wires.  Crosses  outside  are  frequently  as  dangerous  as  inside  of  building. 
Recommend  that  wires  be  made  rigid  and  free  from  sagging. 

(d)  Wires  must  be  of  ample  capacity  to  prevent  overheating;  all  joints  must  be 

properly  soldered  and  taped  so  as  to  insure  perfect  contact;  wires  must  be 
protected  by  fuses  of  proper  size  and  of  approved  type  against  overload 
and  short  circuits.  (  See  N.  E.  Code  Rules  •'  Table  of  Allowable  Carry- 
ing  Capacities  of  Wires^^  and  ^^  Automatic  Cut-otits.^^ ) 

(e)  If  installed  in  the  vicinity  of  easily  ignitible  material,  cutouts  must  be  enclosed 

in  standard  cabinets.  If  not  of  metal,  cabinets  must  be  properly  lined. 
Door,  latch,  and  hinges  should  be  kept  in  proper  order.  Cutouts  and 
switches  must  not  be  installed  in  rooms  subjected  to  inflammable  vapors, 
nor  in  rooms  wherein  hazardous  processes  are  conducted,  unless  by 
special  peimission  and  provision  for  special  safeguards. 

(f)  Where  volatile  vapors  or  dangerous  explosives  are  prevalent,  suggest  con- 

duit system  of  wiring  and  the  use  of  vapor-proof  globes.  Switches  and 
cutouts  controlling  these  circuits  should  be  mstalled  outside  of  the  room 
where  any  hazardous  process  is  conducted,  unless  by  special  permission 
and  provision  for  special  safeguards.  Where  necessary,  suggest  the  use 
of  metal  guards  about  swinging  globes. 

(g)  See  that  all  fuses  are  of  standard  type  and  in  good  condition.     Suggest  the 

removal  of  substitutes,  such  as  nails,  hairpins,  and  the  like.  Observe 
contact  parts  of  cartridge  fuse  blocks. 

(h)  All  rheostats  and  starting  boxes,  unless  mounted  on  switch  boards,  should 
be  mounted  on  sLate  or  other  non-combustible  insulating  material,  unless 
mounted  on  substantial  iron  brackets  which  will  separate  them  one  foot 
from  combustible  material,  or  unless  mounted  on  cement  or  concrete 
floors.  These  should  otherwise  receive  the  same  treatment  as  given 
motor  installations. 

(i;  Motors  must  be  of  sufficient  capacity;  must  be  kept  clean,  must  be  regularly 
oiled,  and  otherwise  given  proper  care,  and  commutators  kept  smooth. 
Each  motor  and  its  accessories  must  be  properly  protected  by  fuses  or 
automatic  circuit  breaker,  and  have  proper  means  of  control.  (See 
'•  Elec.  Motors  "  item  herein.) 


FIELD    PRACTICE  28 

(j)  Observe  if  all  fixtures  are  properly  connected  and  supported;  ascertain  if  any 
circuits  are  overloaded  by  attachment  of  too  many  lamps. 

(k)  All  pendant  lamps  must  be  provided  with  approved  cord,  and  be  free  from 
contact  with  furniture,  nails,  pipes,  machinery,  and  other  fixtures.  Lamps 
of  a  portable  type  ( Seg  N.  E.  Code  Rule  •'  Interior  Conduits''* )  must  be 
equipped  with  approved  reinforced  cord,  to  insure  protection  against 
abrasion.  Heavy  guards  are  recommended  for  lamps  attached  to  portable 
cords. 

(1)  Condemn  the  use  of  paper  and  other  combustible  shades  on  lamps.  Where 
shades  are  necessary,  suggest  those  of  a  non-combustible  type.  Re- 
commend the  removal  of  any  temporary  attachments,  artistic  displays,  and 
extensions  improperly  made. 

(m)  Electric  heating  devices  should  be  protected  against  danger  of  communicating 
fire  to  adjacent  materials,  as  to  construction,  connection  and  mounting. 
Note  the  installation  of  special  apparatus  such  as  electric  welding 
machines,  electric  furnaces  and  ovens,  cloth  cutters,  etc.,  etc.,  and  if  such 
apparatus  appears  carelessly  or  improperly  installed,  notify  or  confer  with 
the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction.  (See  N,  E.  Code  Rule 
"  Electric  Heaters"  ) 

(n)  Lighting  and  power  from  railway  wires  must  not  be  permitted  under  any 
pretense  on  the  same  circuit  with  trolley  wires  with  a  ground  return, 
except  in  railway  cars,  electric  railway  car  houses,  power  houses, 
passenger  and  freight  stations  connected  with  the  operation  of  electric 
railways. 

(o)  Obsolete  types  of  electrical  equipments  are  occasionally  met  with,  especially 
hazardous  features  of  which  are  wooden  cleats,  rosettes  and  fuse  blocks, 
knife  switches  of  unsafe  dimensions,  often  mounted  upon  wooden  bases 
and  wooden  case  rheostats.  Wires  and  flexible  cords  in  such  instances  will 
be  found  to  have  very  inferior  insulation.  Equipments  of  this  character 
should  usually  be  replaced,  as  in  most  cases  they  may  be  considered  as 
beyond  possible  repair  short  of  a  new  installation. 

(p)  See  comments  under  Section  herein  pertaining  to  Electric  Power  and  Electric 
Motors. 


2.     GAS  X  PUBLIC  SUPPLY,  ARTIFICIAL  AND 
NATURAL 

Manufactured  and  natural  gases  are  universally  used  for 
lighting,  heating  and  other  purposes. 

While  not  a  matter  for  the  ordinary  inspector  to  treat  with, 
yet  in  a  general  way  much  depends  upon  the  safety  and  processes 
of  manufacture,  the  quality  of  mixture,  storage  of  and  pressure- 
regulating  methods,  of  the  public  service  company  furnishing 
gas.  Municipalities  or  private  corporations  supplying  gas  for 
general   use  should  be   prepared  to  exhibit  a  certificate  of  expert 


24  FIELD    PRACTICE 

examination  and  approval  of  its  manufacturing  processes,  gen- 
eral equipment,  mixture,  storage  and  distributing  system,  and 
maximum  and  minimum  pressure  regulations.  This  is  impor- 
tant, in  order  that  all  safety  regulations  necessary  at  point  of  service 
supply  may  be  assured. 

For  ordinary  lighting  and  heating  the  maximum  gas  pres- 
sure should  not  exceed  4  ounces  at  burners.  The  regulator  at 
supply  station  should  not  permit  pressure  to  drop  below  1  ounce 
at  burners.  This  might  be  considered  a  maximum  and  minimum 
safety  pressure  regulation  for  domestic  use. 

Supply  mains  should  be  laid  below  the  normal  frost  line, 
and  the  system  of  underground  distribution  examined  for  possible 
interference  from  other  underground  systems.  Electrolysis  in 
supply  mains  should  be  guarded  against,  and  if  found,  immediate 
correction  insisted  upon. 

Outside  controlling  valves  are  important,  to  shut  off  gas 
supply  in  instances  of  damaged  mains,  and  in  case  of  repairs. 

The  public  service  company  should  have  a  reliable  and  gen- 
erally understood  method  of  prompt  notification  to  all  consumers 
of  gas,  in  instances  where  it  is  necessary  to  temporarily  shut  off 
the  supply. 

Inspectors  should  become  familiar  with  the  hazards  of  gas, 
and   the   following   observations   relating   to   ordinary   inside  in- 
stallations and  maintenance  should  receive  attention  : — 
(St)     Service  pipes  where  entering  wall  of  building  must  have  no  air  space  between 
them  and  the  masonry;  the  crevices  around  pipes  to  be  tightly  cemented 
to  prevent  any  flow  of  escaped  gas  in  the  outlying  system  following  pipes 
into  building. 

(b)  Service  connections  should  have  an  outside  control  valve,  conspicuously 

located  for  instant  use.  (The  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  Inc.,  has 
approved  several  types  of  shut-oflF  valves  which  have  manual  control,  some 
of  which  also  have  automatic  control.)  In  certain  localities  ordinances 
require  the  attachment  of  outside  shut-ofF valves  to  gas  service  connections. 

(c)  Gas  meters  should  be  securely  set  and  held   in  place,  and  pipe  connections 

attached  thereto  made  perfectly  tight.  If  meter  is  not  securely  fastened  to 
foundation  wall,  it  should  rest  firmly  upon  a  non-combustible  base.  Lead 
connections  or  meters  assembled  with  solder  are  undesirable.  In  lieu 
thereof,  screw-thread  joints  are  preferable  and  safer. 

Meters  must  not  be  located  near  furnaces  or  open  lights  of  any  nature, 
and  should  preferably  be  in  a  specially  devised  room  free  from  fire;  room 
to  have  direct  screened  ventilation  to  the  outside  where  practicable. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  26 

(d)  Do  not   permit  swinging  gas  brackets,  especially  near  curtains,  shelving, 

in  show  windows,  near  wood  posts,  partitions,  nor  other  combustible 
material.  Require  that  they  be  made  stationary,  or  suitably  safeguarded. 
Require  that  all  open  gas  flames  when  within  thirty-six  inches  of  a 
combustible  ceiling,  shelf,  or  hanging  deck,  be  protected  at  ceiling,  etc., 
with  sheet  metal  or  asbestos  board  with  an  air  space  above. 

(e)  Require  immediate  replacement  of  missing  or  broken  tips,  with  tips  of  the 

type  that  cannot  readily  be  removed,  blown  out  or  broken.  Such  types  are 
on  the  market.  Observe  if  there  are  in  use  any  pendant  gas  mantles;  if 
so,  they  should  have  protection  underneath  of  wire  gauze  or  glass,  as  hot 
carbon  deposits  form  and  drop  from  such  mantles.  Globes  closed  at  the 
bottom  are  safer. 

(f)  Examination  of  all  valves,  joints,   jets,  tips,  and  fixture  connections,  should 

be  made.  Wax  and  tape  should  never  be  placed  over  leaks.  Never  thaw 
out  frosted  gas  pipes  with  an  open  flame. 

In  case  of  leaks,  or  frozen  pipes,  an  experienced  gas  fitter  should  be 
called  in  and  proper  repairs  made.  Never  inserttemporary  cloth,  corks,  or 
flimsy  plugs,  in  unused  gas  pipe  ends  or  outlets. 

(g)  Do   not  permit   the   use   of   shades   of  an   inflammable   nature.    They    are 

dangerous  when  attached  to  gas  lights,  and  should  not  be  tolerated, 
(h)     Require  instant  removal  of  electric   light  or  power  wires  attached  to  gas 

pipes, 
(i)      Where  a  series  of  gas  burners  are  used,  such  as  are  found  in  kitchen  ranges, 
dry  rooms  and  the  like,  there  must  also  be  a  valve  provided  which  will  cut 
ofTthe  entire  gas  supply  to  all  burners. 

(J)  Gas  supply  connections  of  flexible  tubing  are  dangerous,  and  their  use  should 
be  limited  to  portable  devices.  Where  found  impracticable  to  require  the 
removal  of  flexible  tubing,  invariably  see  that  there  is  but  one  shut-ofF 
valve  thereto  located  at  iron  pipe  back  of  point  where  tubing  connects 
and  not  at  the  lamp;  also  limit  length  to  be  permitted,  and  particularly 
note  that  frequent  inspection  for  leaks  and  deterioration  of  the  tubing 
should  be  made.  Where  signs  of  deterioration  are  apparent,  new  tubing 
should  be  provided. 

(k)  Private  natural  gas  wells  should  have  a  duplicate  system  of  pressure  regula- 
tion, one  at  outlet  from  well  and  one  between  well  outlet  and  service  con- 
nection, or  at  outlet  from  gasometer  or  storage  tank,  if  any.  Where 
pressure  from  private  natural  gas  wells  is  greater  than  50  lbs.,  there  should 
be  at  least  two  pressure  regulators  at  well,  in  order  that  in  no  event  a 
pressure  exceeding  8  oz.  could  be  delivered  at  burners.  Special  inquiry 
should  be  made,  in  instances  of  private  gas  wells,  as  to  the  probable  extent 
of  supply  and  pressure  fluctuations. 
Note. — For  ordinary  lighting  and  cooking  purposes  4  oz.  is  ample.  For 
power  and  manufacturing  purposes  this  pressure  is  sometimes  exceeded. 

(1)      See  comments  under  Section  pertaining  to  Gas  Engines,  under  "Heating 
and  Power  Hazards." 


26  FIELD    PRACTICE 

3.    ACETYLENE   GAS. 

This  means  of  lighting  is  conducted  under  three  methods, 
one  by  use  of  the  individual  or  portable  lamp  where  the  carbide 
and  water  mixture  takes  place  at  the  lamp ;  one  hy  means  of  a  pip- 
ing system  through  which  the  gas  is  furnished  to  the  lamps  by  a 
generator  located  either  inside  or  outside  of  building  lighted; 
one  in  which  the  gas  is  furnished  through  a  piping  system  of  a 
similar  nature  but  from  a  central  generating  station. 

By  heating  a  mixture  of  coke  powder  and  limestone  in  an 
electric  furnace  at  a  high  temperature,  calcium  carbide  is  formed. 
When  treated  with  water  this  is  decomposed,  with  formation  of 
acetylene  gas. 

Calcium  carbide  is  in  itself  non-explosive  and  non-inflammable, 
but  owing  to  its  peculiar  properties  when  brought  into  contact  with 
water  or  dampness,  it  is  a  somewhat  hazardous  material. 

Acetylene  gas  is  highly  explosive  when  mixed  with  the  right 
proportion  of  air.  It  has  a  characteristic  odor  like  garlic  and  burns 
with  a  fine  white  flame.  Its  presence  can  readily  be  detected  by  the 
odor  before  an  explosive  or  a  poisonous  mixture  has  been  reached. 

Acetylene  lighting  is  more  frequently  found  in  country 
homes,  country  clubs  and  hotels,  isolated  institutions,  and  in 
localities  where  it  is  not  convenient  to  obtain  electricity  or  gas 
from  a  central  station. 

Acetylene  lighting  is  also  found  on  automobiles,  sometimes 
produced  by  means  of  a  small  generator  on  the  automobile,  and 
sometimes  supplied  from  a  storage  tank.  In  instances  of  the 
storage  tank,  compressed  gas  under  a  high  pressure  is  carried 
therein.     (See  autogetious  tvelding.) 

Approved  devices  and  systems  only  should  be  installed,  and 
especial  supervision  should  be  given  the  handling  of  calcium 
carbide.  Installations  of  an  extensive  nature  should  be  under 
the  constant  care  of  an  employee  thoroughly  acquainted  with  all 
details  of  the  system. 

When  properly  installed  and  operative  a  brilliant  steady 
light  is  produced.  Flickering  irregular  flames  and  hissing  sounds 
at  burners  indicate  either  obstructions  in  the  pipe  system  or 
operative  defects  at  the  generator.  The  regulations  of  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  covering  this  subject,  should  be  care- 


FIELD     PRACTICE  27 

fully  read   before   attempting   to   make   an   examination    of  these 
systems. 

All  lighting  systems  should  be  supervised,  and  in  making 
reinspections  the  following  features  in  particular  should  be 
checked : — 

(a)  Observe  if  gas  generator  machine  is  an  approved  device.     If  not,  it  is  safe 

to  assume  tliat  the  installation  and  equipment  does  not  meet  proper 
requirements. 

(b)  If  generator  is  located  inside  of  main  building  (not  in  a  detached  building 

designed  for  that  purpose,  as  recommended),  a  dangerous  feature  exists. 
Where  inside  of  main  building  the  generator  should  preferably  be  in  a 
separate  room  especially  constructed  for  that  purpose;  the  room  to  have 
outside  ventilation  and  light.  There  must  be  no  artificial  light  within 
ten  feet  of  generator,  nor  fires  within  fifteen  feet.  Never  permit  the  use 
of  a  lighted  match,  lamp,  candle,  lantern  or  any  open  light  near  the 
generator. 

The  generator  must  be  securely  mounted  or  set  up,  and  the  room 
entirely  free  from  dampness  or  moisture,  and  safe  from  freezing. 

(c)  Where  generators  are  not  used  throughout  the  entire  year,  require  that  all 

water  and  gas  be  removed,  and  apparatus  cleaned  thoroughly  at  the  end  of 
the  season  during  which  the  system  has  been  in  service. 

(d)  A  regular  time  should  always  be  observed,  during  dayliiht  hours  only-t 

for  attending  to  and  charging  the  generator,  regardless  of  the  number  of 
burners  actually  used. 

(e)  In  charging  generator  chambers,  clean  all  residuum  carefully  from  containers 

and  remove  it  at  once  from  the  building.  In  the  water  to  carbide  type 
separate  the  unexhausted  carbide,  if  any,  from  the  mass,  and  return  it  to 
the  container,  adding  new  carbide  as  required.  Be  careful  never  to  fill  the 
container  over  the  specified  mark,  as  it  is  important  to  allow  for  the 
swelling  of  the  carbide  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  water.  The  proper 
action  and  economy  of  the  machine  is  dependent  on  the  arrangement  and 
amount  of  carbide  placed  in  the  generator. 

(f)  Never  deposit  the  residuum  or  exhausted  material  in  sewer  pipes,  wooden 

receptacles,  garbage  cans,  or  near  inflammable  material.  Carefully  guard 
against  the  escape  of  gas. 

(gf)  Whenever  recharging  with  carbide,  always  replenish  water  supply.  In 
carbide  machines  be  careful  not  to  place  in  the  generator  less  than  one 
gallon  of  water  for  each  pound  of  the  carbide  capacity. 

Always  keep  water  tanks  and  water  seals  filled  with  clear  water. 
Never  recharge  carbide  feed  generators  with  carbide,  without  first  cleaning 
out  the  generating  chambers  and  completely  refilling  with  clear  water. 

(h)  No  calcium  carbide  except  the  quantity  contained  in  generator  should  pre- 
ferably be  kept  inside  of  main  building  or  other  buildings  of  value.  Cal- 
cium carbide  should  be  kept  in  water-tight  metal  cans,  isolated  by  itself, 
outside  of  building,  under  lock  and  key,  and  where  it  is  not  exposed  to 
dampness  or  the  weather. 


28  FIELD    PRACTICE 

(i)  Observe  if  all  connections  are  secure;  if  piping  in  general  is  arranged  so 
that  moisture  will  drain  back  to  generator;  if  drain  cups  are  provided 
where  necessary.  See  that  all  piping  is  free  from  mechanical  injury,  and 
that  details  of  installation  comply  with  standard  requirements. 

(j)  Never  test  the  generator  or  piping  for  leaks  with  a  flame,  and  never  apply 
flame  to  an  outlet  from  which  the  burner  has  been  removed.  Immediately 
replace  broken  or  missing  burners  or  tips. 

(k)  Never  install  more  than  the  equivalent  of  the  number  of  half-foot  burners 
for  which  the  machine  is  rated. 

(1)  Sediment  and  dirt  may  be  removed  from  piping  system  by  the  use  of  a  foot  or 
hand  power  air  pump.  A  good  pressure  of  air  may  be  forced  into  the 
pipes  and  obstructions  blown  out  through  burners  by  temporarily  removing 
tips.  Occasional  blowing  out  of  piping  system  in  tliis  manner  is 
advisable. 

(m)  Portable  table  lamps  must  be  of  approved  type.  They  should  receive  the 
same  general  care  as  is  given  other  systems. 

(n)  The  same  general  precautions  as  outlined  under  Artificial  and  Natural  Gas 
Lighting,  with  respect  to  swinging  brackets,  inflammable  shades,  portable 
tubing,  defective  joints  and  valves,  electric  cross  wires,  and  poor  mainte- 
nance,  should  receive  attention  in  instances  of  this  system  of  lighting. 

(o)  Calcium  carbide  shonld  be  stored  in  accordance  >v^ith  pub- 
lished  rules. 


4.     COMPRESSED   OR  LIQUID   GASES 

In  commercial  use  are  found  the  well-known  Pintsch  gas 
used  for  car  lighting,  a  limited  use  of  compressed  illuminating 
gas,  and  the  special  petroleum  distillate  gas  known  as  Blaugas. 

The  latter  gas  is  taken,  on  account  of  its  great  heat  content, 
as  a  basis  of  comparison.  Blaugas  is  used  for  lighting  and  for 
flame  welding  and  in  some  instances  for  heating  in  connection 
with  muffles  or  with  small  furnaces.  The  extraordinary  heating 
power,  the  high  pressure  of  storage  and  great  liberation  of  energy 
to  be  expected  at  an  early  stage  of  fire  attack,  and  the  power  of 
asphyxiation,  indicate  a  need  for  full  caution  in  the  use  and 
handling  of  any  and  all  of  the  compressed  fuel  gases. 

The  following  recommendations  are  intended  as  a  digest  of 
experience  toward  the  establishment  of  reasonable  safeguards  in 
the  use  of  a  product  of  this  character: — 

1.  The  storage  cylinder  to  conform  to  specifications  of  the 
U.  S.  Interstate  Commerce  Commission.  These  specifications 
provide  for  a  seamless  container,  of  known  quality  of  metal, 
annealed,  passed  through  a  hydrostatic  test  and  made  with  a 
liberal  factor  of  safety  based  on  a  temperature  of  130  degrees  F. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  29 

2.  All  high  pressure  apparatus,  including  expansion  tank, 
to  be  placed  outside  of  the  main  premises,  preferably  in  an  in- 
substantial detached  hut,  or  if  room  is  not  available,  then  below 
ground  in  a  liberally  ventilated  vault. 

3.  The  reduction  of  pressure  to  be  taken  by  two  steps,  using 
an  expansion  tank  between  reductions,  the  pressure  allowable  on 
the  expansion  tank  to  be  less  than  one  tenth  of  the  maximum 
initial  pressure  in  the  storage  cylinders. 

4.  The  working  pressure  in  house  piping  not  to  exceed  half 
a  pound  for  ordinary  use,  nor  two  pounds  as  a  relief  point 
maximum. 

5.  The  house  pressure  to  be  protected  by  a  mercury  seal 
relief,  and  the  high  pressure  to  be  guarded  by  a  safety  valve 
placed  to  directly  protect  the  intermediate  or  expansion  tank. 

6.  All  means  of  adjustment  and  regulation  to  be  so  piped  as 
to  come  within  and  be  protected  by  a  locked  and  ventilated  metal 
box,  with  view  to  preventing  tampering. 

The  cylinders  for  commercial  use  are  charged  to  about  2,000 
pounds  per  square  inch,  on  which  account  large  containers 
would  be  too  heavy  if  of  requisite  strength  and  cannot  be  used — 
the  ordinary  container  holds  about  20  pounds  of  the  liquid  or 
approximately  three  gallons  which  in  expanding  yields  about  240 
cubic  feet  of  free  gas. 

The  gas  is  explosive  when  mixed  with  air  in  from  5  to  8 
parts  of  gas  to  100  of  air.  The  explosive  power  of  Blaugas  is 
necessarily  high  because  of  its  thermal  capacity,  which  exceeds 
threefold  that  of  ordinary  illuminating  gas.  Because  of  the 
high  pressure  in  the  cylinders  it  would  seem  peculiarly  sensitive 
and  dangerous  should  a  small  fire  weaken  a  storage  cylinder  or 
drum,  and  as  the  drums  or  cylinders  as  used  are  about  the  same 
size  as  those  used  for  other  commercial  gases  the  comparative 
destructive  power  in  case  of  fire  would  appear  to  be  in  propor- 
tion to  the  thermal  capacity  multiplied  by  the  pressure. 

5.  KEROSENE  AND  KEROSENE  VAPOR 

Lighting  in  various  forms  by  kerosene  or  coal  oil  is  found 
almost  everywhere. 

In  addition  to  an  open  flame,  the  oil  in  case  of  fire  immediately 


30  FIELD     PRACTICE 

contributes  inflammable  liquid  which  aids  in  the  spread  of  flames, 
and  under  certain  conditions  an  explosion  occurs.  This  means  of 
lighting,  therefore,  carries  with  it  both  a  fire  and  explosion  hazard. 
(^See  no/e.) 

Where  possible,  approved  electric  or  gas  lighting  systems 
should  be  used  instead  of  oil  of  any  nature. 

Good  maintenance  and  care  are  necessary  at  all  times,  and 
the  following  precautions  of  safety  should  receive  attention  : — 

(a)  The  bowl  or  receptacle  containing  oil  should  not  be  of  glass  or  of  breakable 

material,  but  be  constructed  of  substantial  metal. 

(b)  Receptacles  containing  oil  should  never  be  filled  to  an  overflow  point,  but 

filled  to  a  point  that  will  permit  an  air  space  above  the  oil.  Receptacles 
should  not  be  permitted  to  become  dry  or  empty,  and  should  be  filled  at 
regular  intervals.    Lamps  used  regularly  should  receive  daily  examination. 

(c)  Lamps  should  not  be  filled  while  burning.    Cleaning  cloths  and  waste  should 

be  kept  in  approved  metal  waste  can.  Old  wicks,  when  removed  should 
be  burned  immediately. 

(d)  All  portable  lamps  should  be  so  designed  that  they  may  not  be  readily  upset 

or  overturned. 

(e)  Suspended  lamps  should  preferably  be  securely  fastened  to  rigid  fixtures; 

should  be  free  from  contact  with  partitions,  shelving,  ceiling,  and  combus- 
tible material.  Proper  shields  should  be  provided  overhead  when  lamps 
are  placed  within  24  inches  of  combustible  ceiling  or  material  above. 

(f )  Lamps  should  not  be  permitted  to  burn  indefinitely  in  dark  cellars,  area  ways, 

halls,  attics,  or  at  places  which  are  not  constantly  under  supervision. 

(g)  Property  owners  or  tenants  should  not  leave  premises  unoccupied  indefinitely 

and  permit  lights  to  burn  during  their  absence. 
This  is  a  common  cause  of  fires. 

(h)  Lamps  should  not  be  suspended  nor  placed  where  there  is  a  strong  or  con- 
tinuous draft,  unless  properly  shielded. 

(i)  Burners  must  be  securely  fastened  to  oil  receptacle  and  should  be  kept  clean 
and  properly  adjusted  at  all  times.  See  that  small  vent  pipe  through 
burner  is  kept  clean. 

(j)  Wicks  should  never  be  permitted  to  become  so  short  as  to  fail  to  readily 
absorb  oil  from  receptacles.  When  receptacles  are  filled,  wicks  should  be 
carefully  examined,  and  immediately  replaced  if  too  short.  Wicks  must  be 
kept  evenly  trimmed  and  must  be  of  proper  width  to  fit  burner.  Narrow 
wicks  are  dangerous.  Wicks  must  be  kept  free  from  crusty  accumulation 
of  carbon  deposits,  and  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  shreddy  or  ragged . 

(k)  Inflammable  shades  should  never  be  used,  nor  should  chandeliers  nor  fixtures 
be  decorated  with  combustible  material  for  artistic  purposes  or  otherwise. 
This  practice  in  particular  should  be  condemned. 

(1)  Chimneys  should  be  securely  adjusted  to  burner  frames.  Cracked  chimneys 
should  immediately  be  replaced  with  new  ones.  Do  not  glue  paper  or 
cloth  over  cracks  of  chimneys. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  81 

(m)  Kerosene  Distributing-  Systems  should  be  installed  and  maintained  in  ac- 
cordance with  standard  regulations.  Storage  tank  should  be  outside  of 
building,  free  from  exposure  to  open  Hame  or  light,  and  so  located  as  to 
be  free  from  tampering.  The  piping  system  should  be  carefully  gone 
over,  joints,  connections  and  valves  observed,  the  air  vent  in  burner  from 
flame  to  oil  chamber  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  at  all  times,  and  the 
same  careful  scrutiny  shown  as  is  required  for  other  lighting  systems. 
C  See  published  standards  for  **  Kerosene  Oil  Pressure  Systems.*') 
Note. — Oils  vaporize  by  the  application  of  heat.  The  temperature  at  which 
vaporization  takes  place  varies  roughly  according  to  their  density  :  Some 
of  the  heavier  oils  used  for  lubricants  will  not  give  off  a  vapor  until  they 
have  been  heated  to  about  600  degrees  Fahrenheit.  It  is  the  vapor  which 
bums.  When  ordinary  air  has  approximately  2>^  to  83^  per  cent  of  this 
vapor  mixed  with  it  there  is  formed  what  is  termed  an  explosive  mixture, 
for  an  explosion  may  be  produced  by  igniting  the  combination  as  is  done 
in  the  cylinder  of  an  automobile  engine.  Vapor  from  petroleum  or  its 
products  is  heavier  than  air  and  therefore  sinks  to  the  floor.  One  should 
see  that  there  is  as  little  opportunity  as  possible  for  the  formation  of  these 
vapors  and  when  such  vapors  must  be  produced,  provide  for  their  safe 
handling.  Crude  oil  and  gasoline  present  the  greatest  hazard  of  all  pe. 
troleum  products  because  they  vaporize  at  and  below  normal  temperature. 
Practically  in  the  same  class  with  gasoline  are  naphtha  and  benzine.  Next 
come  some  turpentine  substitutes  made  from  petroleum  which  vaporize  at 
approximately  90  degrees  Fahrenheit;  then  kerosene  which  vaporizes  at 
slightly  above  normal  temperature;  and  finally  lubricating  oils  which 
vaporize  at  such  high  points  that  their  vapor  is  not  a  factor  in  itself  because 
it  is  not  produced  under  any  ordinary  ways  of  handling  or  using  the 
lubricants. 

6.     GASOLINE  VAPOR 

Gasoline  Vapor  Lighting  Sjstetns,  similar  to  Acetylene 
Lighting,  are  more  frequently  found  in  country  homes,  country 
clubs  and  hotels,  isolated  institutions,  and  in  localities  where  it 
is  not  convenient  to  obtain  electricity  or  gas  from  a  central 
station.  These  systems  are  found  also  in  many  villages  and 
towns.  Certain  states  prohibit  by  law  the  use  of  gasoline  for 
lighting  purposes. 

Before  attempting  to  make  an  examination  of  systems  of  this 
kind,  the  standard  regulations  for  their  installation  should  be  care- 
fully read.  Approved  devices  and  systems  only  should  be  installed. 
They  should  be  closely  watched  by  some  one  understanding  their 
danger,  and  especial  supervision  should  be  given  the  handling  of 
gasoline. 

Lighting    by    means    of    gasoline    vapor    is   commonly  con- 


32  FIELD    PRACTICE 

ducted  through  various  methods ;  by  machines  having  outside 
carburetor;  by  machines  having  inside  carburetor;  sj'stems 
having  outside  tanks  and  inside  flame  heated  generators ;  systems 
having  inside  tanks  and  inside  flame  heated  generators,  and 
individual  gasoline  vapor  lamps. 

Machines  which  do  not  introduce  liquid  gasoline  into  the 
building  are  regarded  from  a  safety  viewpoint  as  constituting 
the  least  dangerous  type  of  gasoline  gas  machines. 

Individual  gasoline  vapor  lamps  in  particular,  and  machines 
having  inside  carburetors  or  inside  flame  heated  generators,  are 
regarded  as  the  most  dangerous. 

Aside  from  the  importance  of  keeping  on  hand  the  smallest  quantity  of 
gasoline  possible,  and  handling  that  with  extreme  care,  in  the  open  daylight,  re- 
examinations and  inspections  should  be  made  in  connection  with  the  printed 
regulations  governing  the  installation  of  these  systems.  Occasional  observance 
of  piping  system,  joints,  connections,  valves,  lamps  and  burners,  should  be  made, 
and  the  same  careful  scrutiny  shown  as  is  required  for  other  lighting  systems. 

7.  CANDLES.  LANTERNS  AND  TORCHES 

It  is  often  found  necessary  to  use  portable  lights  of  this 
character,  but  as  a  usual  thing  some  one  is  present,  which  modifies 
their  hazards  somewhat. 

(a)  Devices  of  this  nature  should  not  be  permitted  to  burn  for  indefinite  periods 

without  inspection. 

(b)  Candles  should  be  inserted  in  metal  holders  adapted  for  catching  melted 

wax  and  burnt  wicks. 
(C)     Flaming  hand  torches  are  dangerous.    Gasoline  torches  of  the  gravity  type 
should   be  avoided.    Where  their  use  is   absolutely  necessary,  gasoline 
torches  should  be  suspended  as  far  as  possible  from  combustible  material. 

(d)  Safety  kerosene  lanterns,  with  a  non-removable  front,  rod  guards  protecting 

the  globe  and  otherwise  substantially  adapted  for  portable  use,  should  be 
used  where  possible,  in  lieu  of  poorly  constructed  and  dangerous  portable 
devices. 

(e)  Where  it  is  necessary  to  occasionally  visit  dark  cellars,  attics  and  the  like, 

electric  hand  flash  lights  are  very  practicable. 

(f)  The  same  supervision  as  is  given  oil  lighting  with  respect  to  filling,  trim- 

ming, handling  of  oil,  care,  etc.,  should  be  followed  with  respect  to  these 
devices. 
(k)     When  these  devices  are  not  in  actual  service,  they  should  be  stored  in  a 
metal-lined  enclosure,  or  outside  of  main  buildings. 


n 
HEATING  HAZARDS 

1.  Radiation  and  Conduction  of  Heat. 

2.  Elffect  of  Continuous  Heat  upon  Heating  Devices. 

3.  Furnaces  and  Heating  Devices  of  a  Fixed  or  Stationary 

Type — Grading  of  Furnaces — Setting  and  Mounting 
— Clearance — General  Features  of  Installation. 

4.  Furnace   Stacks,    Chimneys   and   Flues*    Breeching — 

Features  of  Installation. 

5.  Hand  or  Movable  Furnaces. 

6.  Miscellaneous  Heating  Devices — Special  Treatment  of. 

7.  Common  Miscellaneous  Hazards,  in  Connection  ^H^ith 

Use  of  Heat. 


nA  » >-vv^vit«    ^' 


FIELD     PRACTICE  35 


ICTION  OF  HEAT 


Every  heated  body,  whatever  may  be  the  source  of  its  heat, 
tends  to  give  off  this  heat  either  by  radiation  if  air  only  is  in 
contact  therewith,  or  by  conduction  if  in  contact  with  a  solid  body. 

Air  so  heated  becomes  lighter,  and  if  not  confined  rises  and 
tends  to  escape  and  allow  the  cooler  air  to  take  its  place,  thus 
limiting  the  temperature :  Solid  bodies  on  the  other  hand,  since 
they  do  not  move,  continue  to  absorb  heat  whether  by  radiation 
or  conduction,  and  the  temperature  attained  will  depend  upon  their 
nature  and  the  temperature  of  the  body  from  which  the  heat  is 
received.  If  the  solid  body  is  of  a  combustible  nature  this  temper- 
ature may  equal  its  ignition  temperature,  in  which  case  fire  ensues. 

The  intervention  of  an  air  space  preventing  direct  contact  of 
combustible  material  with  the  heated  body,  is  essential.  If  the 
air  space  is  limited,  an  incombustible  solid  or  retardant  should  be 
interposed,  so  arranged  as  to  form  an  air  space  between  the  heat 
radiating  surface  and  the  retardant,  and  another  between  the  retar- 
dant and  the  combustible  material.  The  air  currents  set  up  by 
this  means  will  prevent  the  combustible  material  attaining  a 
dangerous  temperature. 

In  safeguarding  the  hazard  of  heat  absorption  the  combustible 
nature  of  surroundings  should  be  observed,  and  the  location  and 
maximum  temperature  of  the  heating  apparatus  and  nature  of  fuel 
used  therein  noted.  These  elements  must  be  considered  in  pro- 
viding ventilation  and  protection  of  heating  apparatus. 

The  lack  of  air  circulation  between  a  fire  chamber  and  a  retar- 
dant, renders  the  retardant  subject  to  the  same  degree  of  heat 
as  the  fire  chamber,  and  the  lack  of  an  air  space  between  the 
outer  surface  of  a  solid  retardant  and  combustible  material, 
renders  the  combustible  material  subject  to  heat  absorption,  which 
produces  fire. 

^y^w  observing  the  effect  of  direct  heat  it  is  a  simple  rule  to 
remember  that  anything  uncomfortable  to  the  bare  hand  may 
sooner  or  later  set  fire  to  wood  :  the  electric  bulb  too  warm  for  the 
hand  should  have  a  wire  screen  ;/the  heated  surface  over  gas  jet 
where  too  warm  for  the  hand  requires  protection  ;  the  bottom  of  a 
cooker  similarly  requires  an   air  space ;  the  roof  around  a  boiler 


36  FIELD     PRACTICE 

stack  should  be  cut  away  to  a  point  always  comfortable  to  the  hand, 
and  so  on. 

In  order  that  the  importance  of  air  circulation  and  proper 
thickness  of  materials  of  retardants  may  be  emphasized,  the 
following  instances  of  fires  due  to  absorption  and  transmission  of 
direct  heat,  are  herein  mentioned : — 

"  A  fire  occurred  in  a  stock  of  Manila  paper,  in  original  packages,  while 
solidly  stored  upon  a  cement  finished  floor,  directly  above  a  battery  of  high 
pressure  boilers.  The  boilers  were  bricked  in  and  arched  over,  having  an  air 
space  of  twenty-eight  inches  between  top  of  same  and  ceiling,  the  ceiling  or  floor 
above  being  constructed  of  ten  inch  staggered  hollow-tile  and  concrete,  over 
which  was  a  two  inch  layer  of  concrete.  The  paper  was  stored  upon  this  floor, 
and  mysteriously  caught  fire  upon  two  different  occasions.  A  later  examination 
of  the  floor  showed  that  it  was  too  hot  upon  which  to  lay  the  bare  hand,  conclu- 
sively proving  that  the  paper  ignited  from  heat  transmitted  from  boilers  through 
twelve  inches  of  fire  retardant,  even  with  an  air  space  of  twenty-eight  inches 
underneath  floor.  In  this  insbince  there  appeared  to  be  sufficient  air  space  and  a 
proper  retardant,  yet  there  was  a  lack  of  air  circulation,  the  heat  being  permitted 
to  bank  above  the  boilers." 

"There  is  another  instance  of  a  dry  goods  stock  catching  fire  in  shelving 
built  against  a  twelve  inch  solid  brick  wall.  The  adjoining  building  burned, 
the  heat  from  same  being  so  intense  as  to  ignite  material  on  the  other  side  of 
wall  separating  the  two  buildings." 

"Another  illustration  is  that  of  a  hotel  range  setting  fire  to  timbers  through 
five  inches  of  reinforced  concrete — and  another  case  where  a  japan  oven,  in  which 
the  temperature  was  seldom  higher  than  200  degrees  Fahr.  and  in  which  the  gas 
burners  were  six  inches  above  the  metal  bottom,  set  fire  to  a  mill  floor  through 
three  inches  of  hollow  tile  and  asbestos  above  and  below  such  tile." 

In  the  installation  of  furnaces  and  heating  devices,  especially 
those  producing  high  temperatures,  the  importance  of  ventilation, 
air  spaces,  and  thickness  of  retardants,  must  receive  careful 
treatment. 

2.    EFFECT  OF   CONTINUOUS  HEAT  UPON 
HEATING   DEVICES 

Fire  hazards  produced  in  connection  with  furnaces,  ovens, 
boilers,  and  other  heating  appliances,  arise  from  heat  and  flame  of 
the  fuel  employed. 

Necessarily,  aside  from  the  setting  and  arrangement  of  all 
such  devices,  attention  must  be  given  to  the  construction  of  the 
fire  box  or  burning  chamber,  interior  lining  and  exterior  covering, 
arrangement  of  burners  and  grates,  means  of  draft  and  removal  of 
excessive  heat  and  explosive  gases,  and  removal  of  ashes  and  residue. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  37 

An  occasional  examination  of  these  features  should  be  made 
by  inspectors  and  property  owners. 

All  chambers  or  kettles  in  which  are  heated  metals,  gums, 
oils,  grease,  and  other  articles  of  manufacture,  require  an 
occasional  examination. 

Constant  operation  of  heating  devices  under  intense  heat  in 
time  will  establish  deterioration  of  their  parts.  Most  devices 
are  safe  when  originally  installed  and  it  is  important  that  their 
upkeep  be  constantly  watched.  Lack  of  subsequent  care  and 
attention  invites  fire. 

Fuel  for  domestic  and  manufacturing  purposes  embraces 
mainly:  hard  and  soft  coal,  coke,  wood,  artificial  and  natural 
gas,  fuel  oil  and  petroleum  products,  alcohol,  pyrites,  etc., 
many  ot  which  produce  dangerous  gases.  In  each  instance  the 
fuel  employed,  its  nature  of  feed,  degree  of  heat  generated, 
burning  system  and  draft,  etc.,  should  receive  attention. 


3.     FURNACES  AND  HEATING  DEVICES  OF  A 
FIXED   OR   STATIONARY    CHARACTER 

These  embrace  heating  devices  of  a  fixed  or  stationary  type 
not  later  classed  herein  as  hand  or  movable.  The  types  and 
purposes  for  which  these  devices  are  used  are  many.  In  installing 
them  important  features  to  consider  are  the  proximity  and  com- 
bustibility of  the  contents  of  the  building  or  room  in  which 
located;  setting,  ventilation  and  location;  the  nature  of  fuel 
used;  maximum  temperature  required,  and  the  handling  of 
heated  materials  in  connection  therewith. 

In  considering  the  proper  installation  of  these  heating 
devices  especial  attention  should  be  given  the  preceding  articles 
headed  "Radiation  and  Conduction  of  Heat"  and  "Effect  of 
Continuous  Heat  upon  Heating  Devices."  These  articles  em- 
phasize the  importance  of  proper  installation  and  maintenance 
of  heating  devices. 

In  order  to  distinguish  the  relative  hazard  of  stationary 
furnaces  of  all  classes  in  common  use,  these  devices  may  be  graded 
in  a  general  way  according  to  temperature  at  firing  box,  as 
follows: — 


38  FIELD    PRACTICE 

"Low." — Embracing  all  furnaces  up  to  the  melting  point  of 

lead,  600  degrees  Fahr. 
"Medium." — Embracing    all     furnaces    with     temperatures 
necessary  to  produce  high  pressure  steam,  anneal 
metals,  glass,  etc.,  600  to  1,500  degrees  Fahr. 
"High." — Embracing  all  furnaces  with   temperatures  neces- 
sary   for   ore    roasting,    bloom  or  billet  heating, 
iron  smelting  or   fusing,  1,500  degrees   Fahr.  and 
upwards. 
Note. — Furnaces   grading  "High"  may  grade  as  "Medium" 
with   respect   to   installation  and  clearance   when 
not   over  100  cubic  feet   in  size  (outside  measure- 
ment).    This   to  apply  where   the   heating  device 
in   all    respects   may   conform    to    all    maximum 
safeguards,  as  later  provided  for  herein. 
As    an    illustration,  the    temperatures    required    in   melting 
metals   vary   greatly   according    to    the   metal — hence    the    heat 
radiation    is    greater    from    some    types    of    devices    than    from 
others,  and    more    adequate    protective    measures    are    required. 
The  following  Table  of  Temperatures  relating  to  metals  is  use- 
ful as  an  illustration: — 

TABLE  OF  TEMPERATURES. 

Fusion  Point  of  Metals. 

Fahr.  Fahr. 

Blast  Furnace  Slag 2500°        Iron  (wrought) 3300°-4000° 

Bessemer  Retort  Slag 3100°        Lead   630" 

Brass 1600°        Manganese-Steel 2300° 

Bronze 1450*        Nickel 2700° 

Cast  Iron  (pig) 2000°-2400°        Silver  1750° 

Copper 2000°        Soft  Solder 340* 

Ferro-nickel  Steel 2250°        Steel 2400°-3300' 

Gold 1950°        Tin  450° 

Iron  (pure) 3275°        Zinc 775° 

Note:  Table  of  Temperatures  and  important  sections  of  list  of  Furnaces 
reprinted  herein  from  Analytic  System  for  the  Measurement  of  Relative  Fire 
Hazard,  by  permission  of  Manager  of  Western  Actuarial  Bureau. 

The  following  lists  of  representative  types  of  Fixed  Furnaces 
or  Heating  Devices,  graded  according  to  the  approximate 
temperature  required  at  the  firing  box,  will   be  found  useful  for 


FIELD     PRACTICE  '-V,) 

reference  in  instances  of  original  installations  and  for  com- 
parison with  existing  installations.  As  will  be  noted,  three 
grades  are  designated:  "Low  Grade,"  "Medium  Grade"  and 
"High  Grade." 

Furnaces  and  heating  devices  vary  in  construction,  according 
to  the  functions  they  are  designed  to  perform.  Certain  types 
are  constructed  of  metal  entirely  covered  with  brick  or  other 
masonry;  certain  types  are  of  metal  without  covering,  but  well 
braced  with  metal  supports;  other  types  have  an  inner  lining  of 
metal  or  fire  clay  products  or  an  outer  covering,  and  in  instances 
air  spaces  and  incombustible  fillers  between  the  outer  and  inner 
walls. 

Furnaces  of  the  "Medium"  and  "High"  grade  of  large 
design  will  frequently  be  found  in  buildings  of  fireproof  con- 
struction throughout,  or  in  basement  or  on  grade  floor  of  build- 
ings having  incombustible  floors,  walls  and  interior  finish.  They 
should  preferably  be  installed  in  buildings  of  this  construction. 

Other  types  of  furnaces  will  be  found,  usually  of  smaller 
capacity  but  of  similar  construction,  resting  upon  masonry  or 
iron  supports,  having  air  space  between  bottom  of  fire  and  ash 
chamber  and  floor,  in  some  instances  on  combustible  floors. 

Not  only  is  the  setting  of  the  device  worthy  of  special  note, 
but  the  ventilation,  smoke,  gas  and  heat  disposal,  and  clearance 
from  combustible  material,  must  receive  equal  attention. 

In  order  to  condense  the  consideration  of  these  heating 
devices,  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  treat  them  in  a  general  way. 
The  lists  herein  mentioned  cover  the  more  frequently  found 
representative  types.  All  other  furnaces  not  mentioned,  and 
not  otherwise  specified  in  this  pamphlet,  should  be  installed  in 
a  like  manner  to  this  basic  definition. 


40 


FIELD    PRACTICE 


REPRESENTATIVE     TYPES     OF     FIXED     FURNACES. 

GRADED    ACCORDING  TO    TEMPERATURE 

AT  FURNACE-SETTING   AND   MOUNTING 

—  CLEARANCE,   AND  GENERAL   FEATURES 

OF    INSTALLATION 

1.     LOW  GRADE. 

Developing  heat  at  Furnace  up  to  600°  F. 

Annealing  Baths  for  hard  glass        Japanning  Ovens. 

(fats,    paraffine,    salts     or 

metals) . 

Bake  Ovens  (in  bakeries). 

*Boiling  Vats,  for   w^ood    fibre, 

straw,  lignin,  etc. 


Fur- 


(spent 


and 


*  Candy  Furnaces. 
Coffee  Roasting  Ovens. 
Cooking  Ranges. 
Core  Ovens. 
*Cruller  Furnaces. 
Feed  Drying  Ovens. 
Fertilizing  Drying  Ovens. 
Forge  Furnaces  (solid  fuel). 
Gypsum  Kilns. 
Hardening     Furnaces     (below 

dark  red). 
Hot  Air  Engine  Furnaces. 
Hot  Air,  Hot  Water  and  Small 
Steam  Heating  Furnaces  and 
Boilers. 
*  See  paragraph    (c)    under   important  features    of  general 
installation. 


Ladle  Drying  Furnaces. 
Lead  Melting  Furnaces. 
Nickel     Plate     (drying) 

naces. 
Paraffine  Furnaces. 
Recuperative  Furnaces 

materials). 
Rendering  Furnaces. 
Rosin  Melting  Furnaces. 
Stereotj'pe  Furnaces. 
Sulphur  Furnaces. 
Tripoli  Kilns   (clay,  coke 

gypsum). 
Type  Foundry  Furnaces. 
Wood  Drying  Furnaces. 
Wood  Impregnating  Furnaces. 
Zinc  Amalgamating  Furnaces. 


Setting,  Mounting  and    Clearance  of   Furnaces   Grading 
"Low." 

Furnaces  should  preferably  be  mounted  only  on  fireproof  floors.  If  neces- 
sary to  place  them  above  or  over  combustible  floors  the  following  requirements 
as  to  mounting  and  clearance  should  govern.  Air  channels  in  foundations  to  be 
continuous  and  open  at  ends. 

Furnaces  without  legs,  or  v^rith  legs  providing  an  air  space  less  than  four 
inches  between  ash  box  or  bottom  of  firing  chamber  and  combustible  floor, 
should  have  the  combustible  floor  protected  with  sheet  metal  or  y^-inch 
asbestos  covered  with  two  courses  of  4-inch  hollow  tile  or  its  equivalent,  this 


FIELD     PRACTICE  41 

in  turn  covered  with  at  least  ^^  a -inch  boiler  iron  ash  plate  or  pan.  Three 
courses  of  brick  with  the  top  course  laid  on  edjje,  producing  ventilating 
space  between  them,  may  be  accepted  as  equivalent  to  two  courses  of  4-inch 
tile.  The  Hoor  frottct  ion  should  extend  12  inches  beyond  furnace  at  sides, 
rear  and  front  when  gas,  electricity  or  liquid  fuel  is  used;  the  floor 
protection  should  extend  at  least  24  inches  in  front  when  solid  fuel  is 
used,  and  consist  of  sheet  metal  or  l,^.inch  asbestos  covered  with  4-inch 
hollow  tile  or  its  equivalent. 

Furnaces  vrith  leits,  providing  an  air  space  of  not  less  than  4  inches  between 
the  ash  box  or  bottom  of  firing  chamber  and  combustible  floor,  should  have 
the  combustible  floor  protected  with  sheet  metal  or  i^-inch  asbestos, 
covered  with  4-inch  hollow  tile  or  its  equivalent,  extending  at  least  12  inches 
beyond  furnace  at  sides  and  rear  and  front;  if  solid  fuel  is  used  extension  at 
front  to  be  at  least  24  inches. 

Heaiin^  devices  with  le^s,  providing  an  air  space  not  less  than  18  inches 
between  the  ash  box  or  bottom  of  firing  chamber  and  combustible  floor,  may 
require  no  especial  protection  for  the  combustible  floor  except  when  solid 
fuel  is  used,  in  which  case  the  floor  should  be  covered  with  sheet  metal  or  its 
equivalent.  Care  should  be  taken  that  fire  and  ash  boxes  of  furnaces  are  so 
designed  as  to  confine  the  fuel  and  ashes  therein. 

Clearance  Above,  at  Sides,  Rear  and  In  Front. 

Clearance  from  unprotected  combustible  material  above  and  lateral   (includ- 
ing fronts,  sides  and  rear)  should  show  the  following  minimum  distances: — 
Furnaces  without    setting    of    brick  or  its      Above      Sides  and  Rear     In  Front 

equivalent 48  in.  36  in.  48  in. 

Furnaces  with  setting  of  brick  or  its  equiv- 
alent         36  in.  24  in.  48  in. 

NOTK. — See  Special  Notes  and  Important  Features  of  Installation. 


2.    MEDIUM   GRADE. 

Developing  heat  at  Furnace  600°  to  1500°  F. 

Alabaster  Gypsum  Kilns.  Lehrs  and  Glory  Holes. 

Annealing   Furnaces   (glass  or  Lime  Kilns. 

metal — small).  Porcelain  Biscuit  Kilns. 

Charcoal  Furnaces.  Pulp  Driers  (direct  fire  heated) 

Cold  Stirring  Furnaces.  Smoke  Houses. 

Feed  Driers  (direct  fire  heated) .  Steam  Boilers. 

Fertilizer    Driers     (direct    fire  Water-glass  Kilns. 

heated).  Wood-distilling  Furnaces. 

Galvanizing  Furnaces.  Wood-gas  Retorts. 
Gas  Producers. 
Hardening     Furnaces     (cherry 

to  pale  red) . 


42 


FIELD     PRACTICE 


Setting,   Mounting   and   Clearance   of   Furnaces   Grading 
'*  Medium." 

Furnaces  -without  le^s  or  -H'ith  le^s,  providing  an  air  space  less  than  18 
inches  below  ash  box  or  bottom  of  firing  chamber,  should  rest  upon  a  floor 
made  exclusively  of  fireproof  arches  between  steel  "  I "  beams  or  the 
equivalent  thereof,  or  upon  earth  floor.  Such  floors  to  extend  at  least  three 
feet  beyond  the  sides  and  rear  of  furnace  and  at  least  eight  feet  in  front 
thereof. 

Furnaces  >vith  le^s,  providing  an  air  space  of  not  less  than  18  inches  between 
the  ash  box  or  bottom  of  firing  chamber  and  combustible  floor,  should  have 
the  combustible  floor  protected  with  sheet  metal  or  y^-inch  asbestos,  covered 
with  four  inches  hollow  tile  or  its  equivalent,  the  same  to  eTLtidnA  four  feet 
at  front  and  18  inches  at  sides  and  rear  beyond  furnace.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  fire  and  ash  boxes  of  furnaces  are  so  designed  as  to  confine  the 
fuel  and  ashes  therein. 

Clearance  Above,  at  Sides,  Rear  and  in  Front. 

Clearance  from  unprotected  combustible  material  above  and  lateral  (includ- 
ing front,  sides  and  rear)  should  show  the  following  minimum  distances  : — 
Furnaces   without    setting  of  brick  or    its      Above     Sides  and  Rear     In  Front 

equivalent , 48  in.  36  in.  96  in. 

Furnaces  with  setting  of  brick  or  its  equiv- 
alent         36  in.  24  in.  96  in. 

Note. — See  Special  Notes  and  Important  Features  of  Installation. 


3.    HIGH  GRADE. 


Developing  heat  at  Furnace  1500°  F.  and  upward. 


Annealing  Furnaces. 
Bessemer  Retorts. 
Billet  and  Bloom  Furnaces- 
Blast  Furnaces. 
Bone  Calcining  Furnaces. 
Brass  Furnaces. 
Carbon  Point  Furnaces. 
Cement,  Brick  and  Tile  Kilns. 
Coal  and  Water  Gas  Retorts. 
Cupolas. 

Earthenware  Kilns. 
Glass  Blow  Furnaces. 
Glass  Furnaces  (smelting). 
Glass  Kilns. 


Open  Hearth  Furnaces. 

Ore  Roasting  Furnaces. 

Porcelain  Baking  and  Glazing 
Kilns. 

Pot-arches. 

Puddling  Furnaces. 

Regenerative  Furnaces. 

Reverbatory  Furnaces. 

Stacks,  Carburetor  or  Super- 
heating Furnaces  {\x\  water 
gas  works). 

Welding  Furnaces. 

Wood   Carbonizing    Furnaces. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  43 

Setting,  Mounting   and   Clearance   of   Furnaces   Grading 
"High." 

In  installing  Furnaces  of  this  grade,  floor  should  be  of  exclusively  fireproof 
construction,  or  of  earth,  to  a  distance  of  at  least  30  feet  in  front  and  10  feet  at 
sides  and  rear. 

Clearance  Above,  at  Sides,  Rear  and  In  Front. 

Clearance  from  unprotected  combustible  material  above  and  lateral  (includ- 
ing front,  sides  and  rear)  should  show  the  following  minimum  distances  : — 

Above      Sides  and  Rear    In  Front 
Furnaces  of  this  type 15  ft.  10  ft.  30  ft. 

Note. — See  Special  Notes  and  Important  Features  of  Installation. 

IMPORTANT    FEATURES   OF    GENERAL    INSTALLATION 
AND    SPECIAL    NOTES. 

(Applying  to  all  Fixed  Furnace  Installations.) 

(a)  Where  conditions  will  permit,  these  devices,  especially  those  of  the  "  Me- 

dium "  or  "  High  "  grade,  should  be  installed  in  separate  buildings,  or 
cut-off  sections,  preferably  of  fireproof  construction  throughout. 

(b)  Ventilation:  In  addition  to  clearance  specified,  means  of  carrying  off  heat 

must  be  provided  overhead,  especially  in  buildings  or  rooms  having  a 
combustible  roof  or  sides.  This  is  especially  important  in  instances  of 
furnaces  grading  ♦•  Medium"  or '*  High."  Blower  systems,  wall  or  roof 
ventilators,  the  latter  preferably  of  incombustible  construction,  should  be 
provided  for  this  purpose. 

The  clearances  serve  as  a  break  to  reduce  heat  radiation,  but  means 
must  be  provided  to  prevent  heat  from  banking  against  combustible  wood- 
work.   Air  circulation  should  be  provided  to  prevent  this  banking  of  heat. 

(c)  The  low   temperatures  required    in  candy    furnaces,  boiling  vats,  melting 

furnaces,  etc.,  may  warrant  grading  them  as  *•  low."  However,  special 
precautions  should  be  taken  in  order  that  none  of  the  contents  in  boiling 
over  may  reach  combustible  material,  and  such  furnaces  should  be  equipped 
with  hoods,  special  overhead  ventilation,  or  other  means  for  taking  care 
of  hot  vapors,  fumes,  gases  and  heat. 
The  above,  together  with  hot  air  circulation,  is  important. 

(d)  Utilized  Dump  :  All  rooms  or  parts  of  rooms  where  heated  metal   is  cast, 

rolled  or  power  forged,  should  have  earth  or  fireproof  floor  to  a  distance 
of  30  feet  from  any  point  where  the  metal  is  handled  or  manipulated  in  its 
heated  condition;  all  side  walls,  partitions,  and  post  and  column  supports 
should  be  incombustible  to  a  distance  of  10  feet  above  and  30  feet  at  sides 
from  any  point  where  the  metal  is  handled  or  manipulated  in  its  heated 
condition. 

(e)  Waste  Dump:  Where  waste  dump  is  removed  in  its  heated  condition  from 

furnaces  grading  "  Medium  "  or  ••  High,"  the  required  clearance  at  sides 
from  combustible  material  should  be  the  same  as  for  furnace  at  front. 


44  FIELD    PRACTICE 

(f)  In  safeguarding  heating  devices  at  sides,  front,  rear  and  above,  first  attach 
incombustible  insulation  to  the  heating  device  itself,  and  then,  in  addition, 
provide  insulation  for  nearby  combustible  material.  Keep  in  mind  the 
value  of  air  space  and  ventilation  between  heating  devices  and  combustible 
material. 

(jf)  The  insulation  and  protection  of  breeching,  metal  stacks  and  similar  features 
should  receive  treatment  as  provided  under  "  Furnace  Stacks,  Chimneys 
and  Flues." 

(h)  All  cold  air  ducts  leading  to  furnaces,  for  ventilation,  should  be  of  incom- 
bustible construction,  and  in  no  event  should  they  be  permitted,  if  con- 
structed of  wood,  to  come  within  the  proper  clearance  advocated  between 
furnaces  and  and  other  combustible  material. 

SPECIAL  NOTES. 

Note  1. — If  furnace  supports  boiler  or  oven,  space  above  should  be  measured 
from  surface  of  boiler  or  oven. 

Note  2, — If  furnace  has  peep  holes  or  checker  work,  distance  should  be 
measured  to  furnace  wall. 

Note  3. — If  firing  is  done  on  more  than  one  side  of  furnace,  treat  such  side 
as  front. 

Note  4. — In  the  case  of  brick  ovens,  with  walls  not  less  than  twelve  inches 
thick  extending  through  floors,  clearance  requirements  from  that  part  of  oven 
which  is  at  least  one  full  story  above  fire  box,  may  be  waived,  when  in  the  judgment 
of  the  inspector  there  is  no  danger  from  walls  of  oven  being  in  contact  with  com- 
bustible material. 

Note  5. — P'urnaces  of  the  upright  type  which  constitute  their  own  stacks 
(such  as  foundry  cupolas)  do  not  require  overhead  clearance  as  to  roof,  but  where 
passing  through  combustible  roof,  clearance  should  be  provided  as  specified  under 
"  Furnace  Stacks,  Chimneys  and  Flues."  Clearance  from  charging  door  to  com- 
bustible material  above  and  in  front  should  not  be  less  than  10  feet. 

Note  6. — In  the  case  of  open  forges  using  solid  fuel,  clearance  to  combus- 
tible material  from  all  sides  of  forge  should  be  at  least  6  inches. 

Note  7. — In  dwellings,  apartments  and  mercantile  stores,  there  will  often  be 
found  poorly  installed  house  heating  devices  such  as  hot  air  furnaces,  hot  water 
heaters,  low  pressure  steam  boilers,  etc.,  not  having  the  required  clearance  be- 
tween the  top  of  device,  breeching,  flue  and  combustible  floor  or  ceiling  above. 

In  such  instances  proper  insulation  should  be  provided  in  the  proper  place. 
Conditions  may  permit  flue  or  breeching  to  be  insulated  with  two  to  four  inches 
magnesia  lagging  or  equivalent,  leaving  the  ceiling  open  for  inspection.  The  top 
of  the  heating  device  may  be  similarly  insulated,  covered  with  at  least  four  inches 
of  sand  or  other  insulation.  An  air  circulating  space  should  be  provided  if  surface 
above  is  of  combustible  material.  In  addition  to  this,  the  contour  of  the  combus- 
tible material  may  be  covered  with  asbestos  board  or  its  equivalent,  but  should  be 
so  Installed  as  to  allow  no  concealed  space  or  pockets.  This  protection  should 
extend  4  feet  beyond  the  front  of  heating  device,  so  that  heat  and  flames  emanating 
from  furnace  door  may  be  guarded  from  contact  with  combustible  ceiling.  The 
vital  feature  to  consider  is  the  circulation  of  air  above  the  heating  unit;  in  some 
instances  to  provide  this  may  require  special  connection  to  the  open  air  by  means 
of  a  metal  duct. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  45 

4.     FURNACE   STACKS.   CHIMNEYS   AND    FLUES 

In  addition  to  the  arrangement  and  setting  of  Furnaces, 
great  importance  is  attached  to  the  construction  and  installation 
of  chimneys  and  flues,  breeching,  and  chambers  intended  to 
carry  off  smoke  and  excessive  heat.  This  particular  section 
deals  with  these  devices  found  in  connection  with  industrial  and 
mercantile  establishments.  A  special  section  in  this  book 
will  be  found  elseM'-here  dealing  -with  these  installations 
in  DM^ellings. 

Ordinarily  two  types  of  chimneys  will  be  found,  the  sub- 
stantial brick  chimney  and  the  metal  stack. 

The  following  recommendations  as  to  installation  of  stacks, 
chimneys  and  flues  should  be  observed : — 

1.    BRICK,  STONE  OR  REINFORCED  CONCRETE  STACKS 
AND  CHIMNEYS. 

Chimneys  of  this  construction  should  be  built  from  the  ground.  They 
shall  not  be  corbeled  out  of  a  brick  wall  more  than  8  inches,  corbeling  to 
consist  of  at  least  five  courses  of  brick. 

Chimneys  should  be  lined  on  the  inside  with  well  burned  terra  cotta 
or  fire  clay  tile  set  in  portland  cement  mortar.  The  lining  of  chimneys 
should  be  continuous  from  the  bottom  of  the  flue  to  its  extreme  height. 
All  chimneys  should  be  capped  with  terra  cotta,  stone,  concrete  or  cast 
iron.  Portland  cement  mortar  only  should  be  used  in  the  construction  of 
chimneys.  All  chimneys  should  project  at  least  3  feet  above  the  point 
of  contact  with  a  flat  roof,  or  2  feet  above  the  ridge  of  a  pitched  roof. 
Brick  set  on  edge  should  not  be  permitted  in  chimney  construction. 

Thickness  of  walls  and  interior  lining  should  be  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  heating  device  and  its  temperature,  the  following  minimum 
thicknesses  being  prescribed,  viz. : 

From  Heating  Devices  Grading  herein  as  "  Lom^  **  and 
"Medinm**»  Walls  should  be  not  less  than  8  inches  thick  and  lined 
inside  with  fire  clay,  same  to  be  continuous  for  full  length  of  chimney. 

This  may  be  modified  only  in  instances  of  small  heating  devices  devel- 
oping heat  less  than  the  "  Low  "  grade  classification ;  such  as  stoves  of 
dwellings. 
From  Heating  Devices  Grading  herein  as  ••Hi4h**i  Walls  should 
be  not  less  than  12  inches  thick  and  lined  inside  with  fire  clay,  as  above 
described,  of  not  less  than  4  inches  in  thickness,  the  lining  to  continue  for 
a  distance  of  at  least  25  feet  from  the  point  where  the  smoke  connection  of 
the  heating  device  enters  the  flue. 

This  should  be  considered  as  a  minimum  thickness  in  connection  with 
heating  devices  of  the  *'  High  "  grade,  and  it  is  by  no  means  an  excessive 


46  FIELD     PRACTICE 

requirement  to  recommend  two  8  inch  thicknesses  of  masonry  with  an 
interior  air  space  between  the  walls,  and  4  inches  of  fire  clay  lining, 

2.  METAL  STACKS. 

Metal  smoke  stacks,  of  adequate  thickness,  properly  riveted,  jointed 
and  braced  at  least  every  20  feet,  and  otherwise  substantially  and  securely 
set  up,  may  be  used  in  connection  with  heating  devices  of  all  grades. 

These  stacks  should  have  a  clearance  from  all  combustible  material  of 
not  less  than  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  stack,  but  in  no  case  less  than 
24  inches.  Substantial  screens  or  other  guards  should  be  placed  at  least 
24  inches  from  the  stack  to  prevent  contact  with  combustible  contents. 

Where  such  a  stack  passes  through  a  roof,  it  should  be  guarded  by  a 
galvanized  iron  ventilating  thimble  extending  from  at  least  9  inches  below 
the  under  side  of  the  ceiling  or  roof  beams  to  at  least  9  inches  above  the 
roof,  and  the  ventilating  thimble  should  have  a  clearance  of  not  less  than 
18  inches.  In  instances  of  furnaces  grading  '•  low  "  this  clearance  may  be 
reduced  to  9  inches. 

All  stacks  should  project  at  least  10  feet  above  the  roof  of  adjacent 
property,  and  when  placed  outside  should  not  be  located  within  2  feet  of 
building  wail  if  of  combustible  material,  nor  within  4  inches  of  brick  walls, 
and  2  feet  distant  from  window  openings  therein. 

Metal  stacks  should  not  be  permitted  to  pass  through  floors  of  build- 
ing, such  installations  being  regarded  as  dangerous  and  impracticable  to 
properly  safeguard.  In  instances  where  inside  metal  stacks  previously 
installed  may  be  found,  and  conditions  may  not  permit  stack  to  be  placed 
outside,  the  stack  should  be  completely  surrounded  by  an  enclosure  of  8 
inch  brick,  or  6  inch  hollow  tile,  with  a  4  inch  air  space  between  stack  and 
this  insulation.  In  buildings  of  fireproof  construction,  metal  stacks  may 
be  permitted  inside  in  fireproof  enclosures  with  air  space,  such  enclosures 
not  to  be  used  for  vent  shafts  nor  similar  purposes. 

3.  FURNACE      FLUES,     BREECHING,     AND     IMPORTANT 

FEATURES  OF  INSTALLATION. 

(a)  In  the  installation  of  brick  chimneys  no  wooden  beams  nor  joists 
should  be  placed  within  2  inches  of  the  outside  face  thereof,  whether  . 
the  same  be  for  smoke,  air  or  other  purpose.  All  spaces  between  the 
chimney  and  the  wooden  beams  should  be  solidly  filled  with  mortar, 
mineral  wool  or  other  incombustible  material.  No  wooden  furring  nor 
studding  should  be  placed  against  any  chimney;  the  plastering  should 
be  directly  on  the  masonry,  or  on  metal  lathing. 

(b)  All  smoke  flues  should  be  at  least  sixty-four  square  inches  in  area  if 
connected  with  furnaces  grading  '•  Low,"  If  of  a  higher  grade  they 
should  be  at  least  ninety-six  square  inches  in  area,  not  including  the 
thickness  of  the  flue  lining  in  each  case. 

(c)  Metal  breeching,  smoke  pipes  and  hot  chambers  in  connection  with 
heating  devices  should  have  a  clearance  above  and  at  sides  to  com- 
bustible  material  of  at  least  18  inches  from  heating  devices  grading 


FIELD    PRACTICE  47 

"Low  "and  36  inches  from  heating  devices  of  higher  grades,  or  be 
insulated  with  two  to  four  inches  magnesia  lagging  or  equivalent,  and 
in  addition  the  contour  of  exposed  combustible  material  covered  with 
asbestos  or  its  equivalent.  Under  this  insulation  of  incombustible 
material  a  clearance  of  one-half  the  above  named  distances  may  be 
acceptable. 

(d)  Chimneys  or  flues  supported  by  floors,  wooden  beams,  wooden  posts, 
etc.,  are  dangerous,  and  should  be  condemned.  Tile  or  crock  flues  are 
also  a  dangerous  substitute,  and  should  be  removed  and  replaced  by 
recognized  brick  flues  or  chimneys. 

(e)  Smoke  pipes  should  not  be  permitted  to  pass  through  a  wooden  lath 
and  plaster  partition;  in  instances  where  found  they  should  be 
preferably  removed,  or  if  permitted  should  be  protected  by  galvanized 
iron  ventilated  thimbles  at  least  12  inches  larger  in  diameter  than  the 
pipe,  or  by  galvanized  iron  thimbles  built  in  at  least  8  inches  of  brick 
work  or  other  incombustible  material. 

Stove  pipes  passing  through  floors,  closets,  blind  attics  (and 
similar  concealed  spaces)  are  dangerous,  and  their  removal  should  be 
requested. 

(f)  Chimneys  and  stacks  to  be  provided  with  metal  door  into  flue  near 
base  of  same  for  cleaning  purposes. 

(g)  Heating  devices  using  natural  gas  for  fuel  should  invariably  be 
provided  with  means  of  ventilation  to  the  outside  air,  to  carry  off  burnt 
fumes.     Burnt  fumes  from  natural  gas  are  poisonous. 

(h)  Open  fire  places  should  be  protected  by  substantial  wire  screens. 
Natural  gas  fire  places  should  have  a  standard  flue  leading  to  the 
outside. 

Note:  The  mortar  of  brick  or  stone  chimneys  is  subject  to 
disintegration  under  natural  gas  fumes,  and  chimneys  subject  to  this 
should  have  an  interlining  of  terra  cotta  or  fire  clay. 


5.  HAND  OR  MOVABLE  FURNACES  OR  HEATERS 

Heating  devices  belonging  to  this  class  are  of  various  types 
and  will  be  found  in  properties  of  all  kinds.  Thej  embrace 
such  devices  as  Gas  Plates  or  Crowns,  Gas  and  Electric  Heaters, 
Glue  Kettles,  Cupels,  Crucibles,  Pressing  Iron  Heaters,  Soldering 
Iron  Heaters  and  Pots,  Portable  Forges,  and  all  types  of  mov- 
able, semi-stationary  and  stationary  heating  devices  commonly 
found  for  performing  bench  and  hand  work. 

Being  of  many  types,  various  heating  methods  will  be  found: 
Gases,  electricity,  coke,  charcoal,  coal,  alcohol,  kerosene,  gas- 
oline and  fuel  oil  are  the  more  common  fuels. 

All  devices  of  this  character  resting  upon  tables,  benches, 
shelves    or    other    combustible    surfaces,    should    receive    close 


48  FIELD     PRACTICE 

examination  as  to  their  construction,  setting  and  clearance. 
The  best  and  safest  manner  of  protecting  heaters  of  this  class 
is  to  provide  metal  stands,  benches,  tables  or  racks  and  securely 
mount  them  thereon,  providing  safe  clearance  at  sides,  top  and 
rear,  from  combustible  material.  In  no  event  should  they  rest 
upon  woodwork  without  having  an  insulation  of  4-inch  hollow 
tile  or  equivalent. 

Where  all-metal    supports  cannot  be  provided  the  following 
arrangements  may  serve  as  substitutes : — 

(a)  Mounting:  Furnaces  should  be  constructed   so  as  to  rest  on  metal  legs  at 

least  4  inches  in  height,  and  when  set  upon  combustible  surfaces,  a  course 
of  4  inch  hollow  tile,  solidly  bound  together,  or  its  equivalent,  should 
serve  as  a  base  underneath  legs.  In  instances  where  solid  fuel  is 
used  insulation  should  extend  far  enough  beyond  the  front  of  device  to 
prevent  coals  or  ashes  from  coming  in  contact  with  combustible  material, 

(b)  Clearance:  Furnaces  to  have  a  clearance  of  at  least  eighteen   inches  from 

combustible  material  at  sides  and  rear,  and  at  least  four  feet  clearance 
overhead.  Excessive  vertical  flame  from  device,  if  any,  should  be  protected 
overhead  by  metal  hood  or  flashing. 
(C)  Gas  connections :  Where  gas  is  employed  the  same  should  be  connected 
solidly  with  gas  pipe  from  service  branch  to  furnace,  shut-off" valve  to  be 
located  at  service  supply  end  only,  and  not  at  furnace.  Where  a  series  of 
gas  burners  or  heaters  are  used  and  are  supplied  from  one  service  supply 
pipe,  such  as  are  found  in  kitchen  ranges,  dry  rooms,  etc.,  a  valve  should 
be  provided  which  will  cut  off"  the  entire  gas  supply  to  all  burners. 

(d)  Gas  connections  of  combustible,  flexible  tubing  are  dangerous  and  their  use 

should  be  limited  to  portable  devices.  Where  found  impracticable  to 
require  the  removal  of  flexible  tubing,  see  that  there  is  but  one  shut-oft 
valve  for  each  device,  the  same  to  be  located  in  iron  pipe  back  of  point 
where  tubing  connects  and  not  at  the  device.  Limit  tubing  to  length 
absolutely  necessary  and  request  that  frequent  inspection  for  leaks  and 
deterioration  be  made.  Where  signs  of  deterioration  are  apparent  new 
tubing  should  be  provided. 

(e)  Condemn  the  use  of  natural  gas  heaters  having  no  means  of  ventilation  to 

the  outside.     Burnt  natural  gas  fumes  are  poisonous,  and  are  not  readily 
detected. 
Open  fire   places   should  be  protected  by  substantial  wire   screens.     Such 
places  using  natural  gas  should  invariably  have   a  flue   leading  to   the 
outside. 
Note:  The  mortar  of  brick  or  stone  chimneys  is  subject  to   disintegration 
under  natural  gas  fumes,  and  chimneys  subject  to  this  should   have   an 
interlining  of  terra  cotta  or  fire  clay. 
(t)     Electric  irons  should  have  a  cut-out  and  indicating  switch,  and  rest  on  stands 
as  designated  under  (h). 
Note :  It  is  advisable  to  connect  in  multiple  with  the  heaters,  an  incandes- 
cent light  of  low  candle  power,  as  it  shows  at  a  glance  whether  or  not  the 
switch  is  open,  and  tends  to  prevent  its  being  left  closed  through  oversight. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  49 

(g)  Electric  radiators,  g^Iow-lainps,  dental  sterilizers,  and  other  types  of  electric 
heaters,  should  never  be  placed  against  combustible  material,  and  should 
be  otherwise  safeguarded. 

(h)  Sad  or  tailor  iron  stands  should  be  of  metal,  having  metal  legs  at  least  4 
inches  high.  Woodwork  under  such  stands  should  be  covered  with  l/^ 
inch  asbestos  and  sheet  metal,  and  be  placed  where  the  stand  customarily 
rests.  In  lieu  of  attaching  insulation  directly  to  woodwork,  the  stand  may 
have  a  base  of  insulating  material,  same  to  be  not  less  than  %  inch  in 
thickness  and  permanently  attached  thereto,  in  which  event  legs  should  be 
at  least  V-f^  inches  above  top  of  base. 

(1)  Where  natural  gas  is  supplied  from  private  natural  gas  wells,  excessive 
pressure  should  be  guarded  against.  The  gas  wells  should  have  a 
duplicate  system  of  pressure  regulation,  one  at  outlet  from  well  and  one 
between  well  outlet  and  service  connection,  or  at  outlet  from  gasometer  or 
storage  tank,  if  any.  Where  pressure  from  private  natural  gas  wells  is 
greater  than  50  pounds,  there  should  be  at  least  two  pressure  regulators  at 
well,  in  order  that  in  no  event  a  pressure  exceeding  eight  ounces  could  be 
delivered  at  burners.  Special  inquiry  should  be  made,  in  instances  of 
private  gas  wells,  as  to  the  probable  extent  of  supply  and  pressure 
fluctuations. 

(J)  In  general,  all  heating  devices  of  this  character  require  constant  care.  They 
should  be  kept  clean  and  in  good  working  order,  any  fuel  and  ashes  in 
connection  therewith  should  be  kept  in  metal  receptacles.  Metal  racks  or 
stands  should  be  provided  for  holding  hot  tools,  instruments  or  devices 
heated.  See  that  there  is  proper  ventilation,  and  that  chimney  and  flue 
connections,  where  found  and  required,  are  safe. 


6.      MISCELLANEOUS    STATIONARY    HEATING 

DEVICES    REQUIRING    SPECIAL 

TREATMENT 

A  list  of  miscellaneous  types  of  Furnaces  and  Heating 
Devices  which  require  special  attention  as  to  setting  and  arrange- 
ment, together  with  their  common  hazards,  is  given  herewith. 
It  would  require  much  space  to  cover  all  such  devices,  hence 
representative  types  only,  and  those  most  commonly  found  are 
included. 

1  .    KITCHEN  RANGES  AND  THEIR  VENTILATION. 

These  devices  require  setting  and  arrangement  as  outlined 
under  Fixed  Furnaces,  grading  "Low."  The  fire  hazard  is  not 
alone  confined  to  the  setting  of  the  range.  Devices  for  carrying 
away  greasy  vapors  and  excess  heat  must  be  provided. 


50  FIELD    PRACTICE 

In  hotels,  club  houses,  restaurants  and  other  occupancies 
having  an  extensive  kitchen,  a  hazard  of  no  little  consequence 
exists  in  connection  with  the  cooking  range  and  its  ventilating 
system.  It  is  important  that  these  systems  be  given  attention  at 
the  time  of  installation.  The  hazards  in  connection  therewith 
are  numerous,  important  features  to  be  considered  being  as 
follows.      {See  also  Blower  Syslems): — 

(a)  Mounting  and  clearance  of  the  range  should  be  in  accordance  with  installa- 

tion of  Fixed  Furnaces  grading  "  low." 

(b)  The  ducts  for  carrying  away  greasy  vapor  and  excess  heat  should  be  con- 

structed of  metal  at  least  No.  16  U.  S.  gauge,  so  substantially  built  that 
they  may  be  burned  out  without  damage  to  the  building,  or  to  building 
contents.  This  can  be  done  with  safety  only  when  the  ducts  are  properly 
constructed  and  installed.  (The  only  manner  in  which  to  thoroughly 
remove  grease  and  gum  from  the  interior  of  these  ducts  is  to  permit  them 
to  burn  out  under  a  flash  fire.) 

(c)  It   is   important  that  this  be  a  separate  system  having  no  connection  with 

other  house  ventilating  systems  (as  is  often  found). 

(d)  Ducts  should  not  be  connected  to  stacks,  chimneys,  or  flues,  used  for  other 

purposes. 

(e)  The   ducts  must  be  large  enough  to  adequately  and  promptly  take  care  of 

vapors  and  fumes,  the  size  to  be  governed  by  area  of  kitchen  and  change 
of  air  required  therein  per  minute. 

(f)  All  ranges  should  be  provided  with   hoods.    The  range  hood   and   shields 

should  be  properly  constructed  of  substantial  metal,  and  should  be  large 

enough  to  collect  all  greasy  vapors  arising  from  the  burners. 
(jf)     Fans  and  power  apparatus  in  connection  with  the  syste.m  should  be  located 

in  an  absolutely  incombustible  enclosure,  and  have  ventilation  to  the  open 

air. 
(h)     All  existing  systems,  especially  those  of  an  extensive  nature,  if  not  installed 

in  this  manner,  must  be  regarded  as  dangerous.    (Many  hotel  and  restaurant 

fires  are  due  to  these  defective  systems.) 
( i  )     In  many  kitchens  there  will  be  found  additional  cooking  and  baking  devices 

which  should  also  be  carefully  examined. 

2.  HOT  AIR  DUCTS  AND  HEAT  CONVEYORS. 

These  systems,  where  passing  through  fire  division  walls, 
or  walls  serving  as  cutoffs  from  one  section  of  building  to 
another,  should  be  provided  with  approved  automatic  closing 
dampers,  the  ducts  to  fit  tightly  about  the  opening  through  the 
wall.  Where  passing  through  combustible  partitions  or  through 
combustible  floors,  similar  air  space  clearance  and  insulation 
should  be  given  as  in  pamphlet  on  Blower  Systems. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  61 

3.  STOVES:  LARGE  COAL  OR  WOOD  BURNING,  AND 

BUSHELING. 

If  set  on  combustible  floors,  these  devices  should  be  installed 
in  accordance  with  Fixed  Furnaces,  grading  "Low." 

All  stove  pipes  should  be  properly  connected  to  stove,  and 
to  chimney  or  flue,  and  proper  clearance  provided,  as  outlined 
under  Stacks,  Chimneys  and  Flues.  Long  lengths  of  pipe  are 
dangerous. 

Heating  devices  of  this  nature,  while  ordinarily  grading  as 
"Low,"  should  not  be  permitted  in  rooms  where  woodworking, 
painting,  japanning,  finishing  or  upholstering  is  done,  nor 
where  inflammable  liquids  are  stored  or  handled  ;  heating  devices 
with  open  flame  in  such  rooms  are  dangerous. 


4-.  HOT  AIR,  HOT  WATER  AND  LOW  PRESSURE  STEAM 
HEATING   FURNACES. 

Heating  devices  of  this  character,  for  ordinary  use,  should  be 
mounted  and  have  clearance  as  outlined  under  Fixed  Furnaces, 
grading  "Low."  The  following  features  in  particular  require 
careful  observation : — 

(,a)  Where  this  clearance  is  not  obtainable,  direct  insulation  to  heating 
device,  breeching  or  flues  should  be  provided,  and  if  necessary,  in  addition 
thereto,  ceiling  above  should  be  insulated  as  outlined  under  Fixed  Fur- 
naces. In  no  case  should  the  clearance  be  reduced  more  than  one  half  that 
specified,  A  covering  of  at  least  four  inches  of  sand  on  top  of  casing,  in 
all  heaters  not  otherwise  encased,  is  a  good  means  of  insulation.  (See 
note  7  on  "  Types  of  Fixed  Furnaces.") 

(b)  All  cold  air  ducts,  heating  conveyors  and  ducts,  should  be  of  incombustible 

construction. 

(c)  All  heater  pipes  from  hot  air  furnaces  where  passing  through  combustible 

partitions  or  floors  should  be  doubled  tin  pipes  with  at  least  1-inch  air 
sp.ace  between  them. 

(d)  Horizontal  hot  air  pipes   leading  from  furnace  should  be  not  less  than  6 

inches  from  any  woodwork,  unless  the  woodwork  is  covered  with  loose 
fitting  tin,  or  the  pipe  is  covered  with  at  least  i^  inch  of  corrugated  asbes- 
tos, in  which  latter  cases  the  distance  from  the  woodwork  may  be  reduced 
to  not  less  than  3  inches.    This  relates  to  heating  pipes  only,  not  to  flue. 

(e)  No  hot  air  pipe  should  be  placed  in  a  wooden  stud  partition,  or  any  wooden 

enclosure  nearer  than  8  feet  horizontal  distance  from  the  furnace. 

(f)  Hot  air  pipes  contained  in  combustible  partitions  should   be  placed   inside 

another  pipe  arranged  to  maintain  i/^-inch  air  space  between  the  two  on  all 
sides,  or  be  securely  covered  with  ^^  inch  of  corrugated  asbestos.  Neither 
the  outer  pipe  nor  the  covering  should  be  within  1^  inches  of  wooden 


52  FIELD    PRACTICE 

studding,  and  no  wooden  lath  should  be  used  to  cover  the  portion  of  the 
partition  in  which  the  hot  air  pipe  is  located. 

(g)  Hot  air  pipes  in  closets  should  be  double,  with  a  space  of  at  least  1  inch 
between  them  on  all  sides. 

(h)  All  hot  air  furnaces  should  have  at  least  one  register  without  valve  or 
louvres,  to  prevent  overheating. 

(I)  A  register  located  over  a  brick  furnace  should  be  supported  by  a  brick  shaft 
built  up  from  the  cover  of  the  hot-air  chamber;  said  shaft  should  be  lined 
with  a  metal  pipe,  and  no  woodwork  should  be  within  2  inches  of  the 
outer  face  of  the  shaft. 

(j)  A  register  box  placed  in  the  floor  over  a  portable  furnace  should  have  an 
open  space  around  it  of  not  less  than  4  inches  on  all  sides,  and  be  sup- 
ported by  an  incombustible  border. 

(k)  Hot  air  registers  placed  in  any  woodwork  or  combustible  floors  should  be 
surrounded  with  a  border  of  incombustible  material,  not  less  than  2 
inches  wide,  securely  set  in  place. 

(1)  Register  boxes  should  be  of  metal  and  be  double;  the  distance  between  the 
two  should  be  not  less  than  1  inch;  or  they  may  be  single  if  covered  with 
asbestos  not  less  than  i/g  inch  in  thickness,  and  if  all  woodwork  within  2 
inches  be  covered  with  tin. 

(m)  All  steam  mains,  radiators  and  steam  pipes  should  be  installed  and  main- 
tained as  outlined  under  Section  **  Steam  Mains  and  Steam  Pipes," 

5.  DUCTLESS    HEATING    AND    VENTILATING  AND   DRY 

CLOSET  SYSTEMS. 

These  systems  were  formerly  frequently  found  in  connection 
with  schoolhouses,  churches  and  institutions,  and  consisted  of  a 
system  of  hot  air  heating  and  ventilation,  which  permitted  hot 
air  to  pass  through  spaces  between  floors  and  ceilings,  through 
partitions  and  through  other  hidden  spaces.  Heat  was  delivered 
from  furnaces  into  brick  heating  flues  or  chambers,  and  from 
there  permitted  to  circulate  through  the  spaces  above  named. 

Many  fires  of  an  extensive  nature  were  due  to  this  system. 
Where  found,  effort  should  be  made  to  have  it  replaced  by  a 
modern  heating  method. 

The  "dry  closet"  system  is  also  equally  or  more  dangerous. 
This  refers  to  a  method  of  using  direct  fire  in  disposing  of  refuse 
and  renovating  large  toilet  closets. 

In  inspecting  schools  and  institutions,  inspectors  should  be 
on  the  lookout  for  these  antiquated  systems. 

6.  GAS   (NATURAL)   FLOOR   HEATERS. 

This  type  of  heater  will  be  found  in  many  localities.  It  is 
a  device  constructed  of  metal  set  in  the  floor,  the  burners   being 


FIELD    PRACTICE  53 

attached  and  suspended  under  the  floor.  These  heaters  are 
usually  found  on  the  first  floor  of  buildings.  The  heat  is  deliv- 
ered through  a  floor  register  directly  above  the  drum  of  the 
heater.     The  open  gas  flame  is  visible  through  the  register. 

These  devices  are  a  poor  and  dangerous  makeshift  for  a  sub- 
stantial heater  or  gas  stove,  and  should  be  condemned.  A 
serious  danger  to  life  in  connection  therewith  is  the  absence  of 
any  flue  to  carry  off  burnt  fumes  and  gases. 

7.  STEAM   MAINS  AND  STEAM   PIPES. 

(a)  Pipes  conveying  main  supply  of  steam  should  be  wrapped  with  magnesia  or 

asbestos  covering,  and  where  passing  through  wood  partitions  should 
have  a  clear  space  of  at  least  one  inch.  Steampipe  covering  should 
preferably  be  carried  in  a  single  piece  through  floors  and  partitions. 

(b)  It  is  advisable  to  examine  covering,  which  may  be   done  with  a  penknife. 

Very  often  it  will  be  found  that  a  cheap  covering  of  combustible  material 
has  been  substituted. 

(c)  Steam  mains  should  not  rest  on  combustible  material;   should  have  metal 

hangers  to  support  them,  and  the  outer  covering  should  be  fastened  to 
pipe  with  brass  bands. 

(d)  Steam  heating  pipes  should  rest  on  metal  hangers  or  supports,  and  where 

passing  through  combustible  floors  or  partitions  should  have  at  least  a 
one-half  inch  air  space  from  combustible  material  and  a  metal  collar  or 
thimble. 

(e)  Steam  radiators  and  steam  pipes  must  not  be  used  as  receptacles  on  which  to 

dry  rags,  clothes,  or  other  combustible  material. 

(f )  Where  radiators  are  placed  in  window  recesses,  or  concealed  spaces,  care 

should  be  taken  to  see  that  such  places  have  a  non-combustible  lining,  and 
ample  air  circulation.  These  enclosures  should  be  cleaned  and  kept  free 
from  dust. 

(g)  All  steam  pipes  should  be  so  installed  that  they  cannot  come  in  contact  with 

combustible  material  of  any  character. 

8.  AUTOGENOUS  WELDING. 

All  installations  of  Oxy-Acetylene  Heating  and  Welding 
apparatus  should  strictly  conform  to  published  standard  regula- 
tions governing  the  same. 

The  follov^^ing  observations  of  existing  installations  should 
be  made : — 

(a)  Acetylene  gas  machines  should  be  of  approved  type,  and  installed  outside  of 

main  building. 

(b)  Acetylene  gas  storage  tanks  should  be  of  approved  design,  and  must  not  be 

charged  to  a  service  pressure  in  excess  of  250  pounds  per  square  inch  at  a 
temperature  of  70  degrees  Fahr.  Tanks  in  excess  of  one  day's  supply 
should  not  be  kept  inside  of  main  building. 


54  FIELD    PRACTICE 

(c)  Chemicals  used  in  oxygen  generation  should  be  limited  to  not  more  than  one 

day's  supply  inside  of  main  buildings;  if  mixed  on  the  premises,  mixing 
should  be  done  in  iron  drums  and  extreme  care  used  to  prevent  spilling. 

(d)  Oxygen  generators  should  be  located  outside  of  main  buildings. 

(e)  Oxygen  storage  tanks  should  be  of  approved  design,  provided  with  some 

practicable  means  of  automatically  relieving  excessive  pressure  due  to  fire 
or  other  cause,  and  limited  to  not  more  than  one  day's  supply  inside  of 
main  building. 

(f)  The   storage  and  handling  of  Calcium   Carbide   to   be   in  accordance  with 

published  Standard  regulations. 


9.  CORE  OVENS. 

These  should  be  installed,  in  all  respects,  as  outlined  under 
"Fixed  Furnaces,"  grading  "Low."  This  applies  to  large  core 
ovens  of  the  brick  type,  and  large  metal  ovens. 

Portable  metal  ovens  should  rest  on  legs  of  metal,  not  less 
than  12  inches  high,  unless  upon  non-combustible  floor. 

(a)  All  interior  racks  or  stands  must  be  of  metal  construction. 

(b)  The  storage  of  patterns,  flasks  or  follow-boards  must  not  be  permitted  on 

or  about  these  ovens. 

10.  FORGES. 

Forges  should  be  constructed  and  installed  in  accordance 
with  rules  governing  "Fixed  Furnaces,"  grading  "Low."  All 
fixed  coal  forges  should  have  substantial  flues,  be  properly 
hooded,  and  where  exposed  to  woodwork,  or  in  rooms  where 
there  is  combustible  material,  be  provided  with  metal  shields. 

Portable   metal   coal   or  coke   forges  should   have   metal    ash 
pan,  suspended  not  less  than  8  inches  above  floor. 

Floor  under  anvils  and  drop  hammers  should  be  of  incom- 
bustible material. 

Forges  must  be  regarded  as  devices  having  open  flames,  and 
should  not  be  permitted  in  rooms  where  there  is  woodworking, 
painting,  finishing,  or  handling  of  volatiles. 

1  1.    CUPOLAS. 

The  modern  foundry  Cupola  should  be  so  arranged  that  it 
constitutes  an  iron  or  fireproof  wing  or  section  of  building  in 
which  it  is  located,  with  respect  to  roof,  charging  floor,  and  side 
walls.     This  relates  as  well  to  the  construction  and  arrangement 


FIELD     PRACTICE  ;>» 

of  casting  floor  and  dump.  These  devices  should  be  installed 
in  accordance  with  "Fixed  Furnaces,"  grading  "High,"  outlined 
herein. 

Existing  cupolas  not  found  in  accordance  with  these  requirements  should  be 
required  to  have  at  least  a  '24  inch  clearance  at  charging  floor  and  roof  with  a  metal 
collar  intervening  and  extending  at  least  six  inches  below  all  woodwork,  if  charging 
floor  or  roof  is  of  combustible  construction.  Cupola  must  extend  at  least  10  feet 
above  the  highest  point  of  any  roof  of  combustible  construction  within  a  radius  of 
50  feet.     Roof  covering  near  cupola  to  be  of  non-combuslible  material. 

If  the  charging  floor  is  less  than  8  feet  above  the  dump  floor,  the  former 
should  be  of  fireproof  construction.  All  side  walls,  partitions  and  post  and  col- 
umn supports  to  be  incombustible  to  a  distance  of  10  feet  above  and  30  feet  at  sides 
from  any  point  where  metal  is  handled  or  manipulated  in  its  heated  condition. 

The  main  supply  of  wood,  coke,  or  fuel  should  not  be  kept  within  an  expos- 
ing distance  of  cupolas. 

12.    MELTING  AND   RENDERING   KETTLES,   ETC. 

Boiling  and  heating  kettles  are  of  various  types.  Their 
hazards  depend  upon  the  manner  of  heating  their  contents,  and 
the  properties  of  the  contents  as  regards  danger  of  ignition, 
boiling  over,  and  tendency  to  produce  explosive  vapors. 

Varnish  boilers,  oil  stills,  bleachers,  agitators  and  extra 
hazardous  boiling  kettles,  should  be  located  in  separate  buildings 
preferably  of  fireproof  construction,  and  always  so  installed  that 
when  kettle  contents  catch  fire,  as  they  frequently  do,  flames 
will  do  no  damage  beyond  loss  of  kettle  contents.  Brick  hearths 
and  chimneys  are  advised  for  such  purposes. 

Kettles  in  excess  of  two-gallon  capacity,  if  heated  by  direct  fire 
heat,  are  considered  more  hazardous  than  those  heated  by  steam  or 
electricity,  but  the  increased  hazard  may  be  somewhat  reduced  if 
the  kettle  is  provided  with  safeguards  to  prevent  any  possible  over- 
flow from  endangering  other  combustible  material.  If  not  in  a 
separate  building,  such  kettles  should  be  enclosed  in  a  separate 
room  with  floor,  ceiling  and  sides  made  entirely  of  incombustible 
material.  Entrance  to  room  from  other  parts  of  floor  should  be 
protected  by  a  fire  door.  Sill  of  door  should  be  raised  sufficiently 
to  prevent  overflow  of  heated  contents  of  kettle. 

In  the  case  of  small  kettles  where  the  total  capacity  does 
not  exceed  approximately  two  gallons,  direct  fire  heat  may  be 
acceptable  if  the  kettle  is  fitted  with  a  projecting  flange  to  catch 
any  overflow,  or  if  the  kettle  is  placed  in  a  pan  so  insulated  from 


56  FIELD    PRACTICE 

combustible  material  that  the  entire  contents  of  the  kettle  might 
boil  over  into  the  pan  and  burn  therein  without  danger. 

Kettles  should  preferably  be  heated  by  steam,  hot  water,  or 
electricity.  Water  jacketed  kettles  heated  by  properly  guarded 
gas  burners  may  be  acceptable  when  steam  is  not  available. 

Kettles  should  be  provided  with  covers  having  long  handles 
for  prompt  smothering  of  flames  therein. 

A  supply  of  wet  burlap  bags  provides  a  good  means  of 
smothering  oil  or  grease  fires,  and  in  addition  to  this  a  mixture 
of  sand  and  sawdust  in  equal  parts  with  addition  of  about  ten  per 
cent  of  crude  bicarbonate  of  soda,  in  pails,  should  be  at  hand. 

13.  INCUBATORS  AND  BROODERS. 

These  devices,  used  in  connection  with  the  industry  of  poul- 
try raising,  constitute  a  special  hazard.  They  are  sometimes 
found  in  domestic  or  experimental  use  in  the  basements  of  dwell- 
ings, apartments  or  stables.  Systems  which  do  not  require  the 
use  of  lamps  and  kerosene  oil  are  considered  the  least  hazardous. 

These  devices  are  heated  in  several  ways,  by  coal,  hot  water, 
electricity,  gas  and  oil.  They  all  require  constant  care  and 
should  be  under  supervision  while  in  operation. 

The  same  general  rules  that  govern  Lighting  and  Heating 
Devices  should  apply  in  the  installation  and  maintenance  of 
these  devices. 

14.  FRUIT  RIPENING. 

(a)  Lamps  used  for  this  purpose  should  have  metal  bowls,  and  be  suspended 

overhead  by  iron  supports  with  ample  clearance  to  combustible  material. 
Constant  care  should  be  given  lamps. 

(b)  If  gas  burners  are  used,  same  must  be  placed  at  least  five  inches  from  floor; 

iron  piping  to  be  used  throughout;  gas  jets  to  be  rigidly  fixed,  and  have 
at  least  a  36-inch  clear  space  overhead.  Burner  to  be  at  least  twelve  inches 
from  combustible  material  in  other  directions. 

(c)  The  use  of  gasoline  stoves  or  torches  for  this  purpose  should  be  prohibited. 

(d)  Sulphur  pots  for  sulphuring  dry  fruits  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  con- 

tents  will  not  boil  over  and  drop  upon  combustible  material.  A  non- 
combustible  floor  is  recommended. 

(e)  No  hay,  straw,  excelsior,  nor  like  combustible  material  should  be  kept  in 

the  room.     Keep  such  materials  in  metal  or  fireproof  bins  or  rooms. 

(f)  Rooms  of  this  nature  should  be  constructed  as  nearly  as  possible  of  incom- 

bustible materials. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  67 

15.  BLEACHING. 

Sodium  peroxide,  sodium  dioxide,  barium  dioxide  (or  by 
whatever  term  known)  and  sulphur,  in  excess  of  one  day's 
supply,  should  be  stored  outside  of  main  building. 

Sulphur  pots  must  be  so  constructed  that  if  the  sulphur  boils 
over  it  cannot  drop  upon  combustible  material.  In  broom  corn 
factories  metal  hoods  and  shields  should  be  provided  to  prevent 
corn  from  falling  into  or  against  the  pots. 

Bleaching  room  should  be  outside  of  main  building.  Where 
found  in  main  building,  room  should  be  constructed  of  incom- 
bustible material,  properly  cut  off,  and  well  ventilated  to  the 
outside. 

16.  GRAIN   BLEACHERS. 

These  devices  should  be  of  brick,  concrete  or  other  fireproof 
construction,  or,  if  of  cribbed  construction,  to  be  protected  on 
the  outside  by  brick,  concrete,  metal  or  other  incombustible 
material. 

To  be  at  least  twenty-five  feet  from  frame  elevators,  but  may 
be  set  not  closer  than  six  feet  to  a  brick  or  fireproof  elevator, 
provided  there  are  no  unprotected  openings  in  elevator  wall 
within  twenty-five  feet  of  bleacher. 

To  be  connected  to  the  elevator  above  and  below  by  metal 
spouts,  properly  cut  off  by  two  automatic  valves  in  each  spout. 

(a)  All  conveyors  to  be  of  metal  screw  type  in  metal  or  concrete  casing;  no  com- 

bustible material  to  be  used  between  bleacher  and  elevator. 

(b)  Sulphur  burning  furnace  to  be   set  at  least  twenty-five   feet  distant  from 

bleacher  in  the  direction  away  from  the  elevator;  to  be  of  fireproof  con- 
struction; to  be  unenclosed,  except  by  an  enclosure  of  fireproof  con- 
struction. 

(c)  When  necessary  to  set  furnace  closer  to  bleacher  than  above  specified,  it  may 

be  done  provided  the  fume  pipe  is  not  less  than  twenty-five  feet  in  length. 

17.  JAPAN  AND  ENAMELING  OVENS. 

These  devices  contribute  a  serious  explosion  hazard.  This 
hazard  may  be  measured  largely  by  the  degree  of  heat  required, 
the  ingredients  of  the  mixture  used  as  regards  volatile  proper- 
ties, and  the  manner  of  heating  and  ventilating  the  oven. 

These  ovens  should   be   located   in  an  outside   building,  or  a 


68  FIELD    PRACTICE 

building  designed  for  the  purpose,  cut  off  from  main  structures. 
Such  buildings  should  be  of  incombustible  material  and  well 
ventilated.  To  reduce  the  danger,  especially  to  loss  of  life, 
from  explosion,  the  safest  method  is  to  provide,  in  addition  to 
necessary  vents  to  the  open  air,  a  self-releasing  roof  or  ceiling 
trap  at  oven,  which  in  the  event  of  an  explosion  will  permit  the 
force  of  the  same  to  escape. 

Ovens  constructed  of  brick  and  located  inside  of  main  build- 
ing should  be  installed  in  accordance  with  rules  for  "Fixed  Fur- 
naces," grading  "Low."  Special  attention  should  be  given  the 
matter  of  ventilation  and  construction  of  doors  thereto. 

Ovens  constructed  of  metal,  regardless  of  location,  should 
have  double  walls,  the  space  between  to  be  not  less  than  li 
inches  and  be  filled  with  vitrified  cellular  asbestos  boards  or 
other  equally  efficient  insulation  which  will  not  settle.  Their 
installation  should  conform  to  rules  for  "Fixed  Furnaces," 
grading  "Low." 

(a)  Small  metal  lacquering  ovens  resting-  on  legs,  and  requiring  but  a  low  tem- 

perature (as  is  usually  found),  if  on  combustible  floor,  the  floor  directly 
under  oven  should  be  protected  with  a  layer  of  four-inch  hollow  tile  or  its 
equivalent.  These  ovens  should  be  ventilated  and  be  at  least  eight  feet 
from  combustible  material.  Ovens  of  this  type  heated  by  direct  fire, 
require  ample  ventilation. 

(b)  Heating  by  direct  fire  in  the  oven  is  extra-hazardous.     Owing  to  the  nature 

of  the  thinner  used  in  japan  and  enamel,  the  vapor  thrown  off  in  the  drying 
process  is  liable  to  ignition  (an  explosion  resulting)  where  an  open  flame 
is  used.    This  danger  can  be  reduced  only  by  providing  good  ventilation. 

(c)  Where  steam  or  electricity  will  not  answer,  and  direct  fire  heat  is  used,  the 

most  modern  arrangement  provides  for  the  separation  of  the  fire  chamber 
from  the  baking  department,  by  means  of  a  tight  incombustible  partition. 
This  is  of  special  importance,  and  the  oven  should  invariably  be  so  devised 
that  there  will  be  no  flame  in  the  baking  compartment, 
d)  Each  oven  should  ha  ve  a  ventilating  pipe  of  not  less  than  No.  22  U.  S.  gauge 
metal,  run  as  directly  as  possible  to  the  outside  air. 

(e)  Ovens  of  200  cubic  feet  capacity  or  less  should  have  a  ventilating  pipe  not 

less  than  eight  inches  in  diameter. 

(f)  Ovens   having  a   greater  capacity  than   200  cubic  feet  should  have  twenty 

square  inches  of  vent  pipe  for  each  100  cubic  feet  capacity. 

(g)  Each  vent  pipe  should  be  provided  with  a  damper.    The  damper  and  doors 

to  oven  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  opening  of  the  door  or  doors  will 
open  the  damper.    One  or  more  hinged  relief  covers  should  be  provided  in 
the  top  of  the  oven,  as  previously  suggested. 
(h)     Ovens   should   be   provided  with  steam   jets,  installed   in  accordance  with 
recommendations  under  item  *'  Steam  Jets." 


FIELD     PRACTICE  59 

(i)  All  material  before  being  placed  in  ovens  to  be  baked  should  remain  in  the 
open  for  a  period  long  enough  for  excessive  coating  and  drippings  of  japan 
mixture  to  drain  ofT",  drippings  to  be  caught  in  metal  receptacles  or  to  drain 
into  dip  tank. 

(J)  In  instances  of  japanning  on  a  large  scale  in  main  building,  the  room  should 
be  of  fireproof  construction,  preferably  located  on  top  floor  of  building 
with  ventilation  in  the  roof  and  at  the  floor  line,  communication  to  room 
to  be  protected  with  an  approved  fire  door,  and  oven  doors  to  be  of  No.  12 
or  No.  14  U.  S.  gauge  metal,  with  proper  angle  iron  reinforcements  and 
standard  fastenings  and  appliances  for  holding  door  closed.  If  possible, 
door  should  be  made  self-closing. 

(k)  In  instances  of  japanning  on  a  small  or  moderate  scale  in  main  building,  the 
same  should  be  done  in  a  room  having  vapor-tight  Incombustible  walls, 
ceiling  and  floor,  with  ventilation  at  the  floor  level  and  overhead  to  the 
outside  air. 

(1)  Rooms  in  which  japanning  is  done  should  be  free  from  other  occupancy  or 
storage.  Dip  tanks  should  not  be  located  in  these  rooms,  nor  should  there 
be  any  oils  or  coating  mixture  present  therein. 

(m)   The  ovens  should  be  kept  free  from  accumulations  of  gummy  drippings. 

(n)  Special  inquiry  should  be  made  as  to  the  maximum  temperature  required  in 
each  instance,  and  a  greater  temperature  should  not  be  maintained. 

(o)     Inquiry  should  also  be  made  as  to  the  materials  composing  the  japanning 
mixture. 
{See  also  Dip  Tanks.) 

18.    DRY  ROOMS. 

Rooms  used  for  drying  purposes,  in  which  heat  of  higher 
than  ordinary  temperature  is  required,  should  be  especially 
designed  and  constructed  to  confine  the  hazard  therein. 

Where  not  in  a  separate  building,  so  constructed,  nor  other- 
wise cut-off  from  main  building,  the  walls,  ceilings  and  floors  of 
dry  rooms  should  be  constructed  of  incombustible  material ;  fire 
doors  of  the  vertical  shaft  type  should  protect  openings  into  such 
room.  If  metal  is  used  on  metal  framing,  the  sheet  metal  should 
be  not  less  than  No.  16  U.  S.  gauge  in  thickness,  and  be  riveted 
to  angle  iron  or  equivalent  frames.  The  floor  of  the  dry  room 
should  be  at  least  4  inches  thick  of  incombustible  material.  Re- 
gardless of  the  degree  of  temperature  required,  whether  low  or 
high,  wood  or  wood-lined  rooms  are  not  recommended. 

Heat  should  be  steam,  hot  water,  or  hot  air,  with  pipes 
located  preferably  overhead  or  at  sides.  If  not  overhead,  pipes 
should  be  shielded  so  as  to  maintain  at  least  2  inches  clearance 
from  combustible  material. 


60  FIELD    PRACTICE 

Direct  heating  devices,  having  an  open  flame,  are  more 
hazardous  than  steam  or  hot  water.  The  increased  hazard  there- 
from may  be  reduced  if  the  source  of  heat  is  protected  on  the 
floor  by  at  least  a  4-inch  base  of  incombustible  material,  and  a 
substantial  wire  screen,  or  other  guard,  is  placed  at  least  18 
inches  above,  and  12  inches  from  the  sides. 

Dry  rooms  should  have  ventilation  to  the  outside  of  the 
building.  A  vent  pipe,  if  necessary,  should  be  made  of  not  less 
than  No.  22  U.  S.  gauge  metal  with  lapped  seams  and  riveted 
joints,  run  as  directly  as  possible  to  the  outside,  and  provided 
with  a  suitable  hood  or  shield.  The  pipe  should  be  at  least  6 
inches  from  combustible  material. 

Dry  rooms  should  be  provided  with  automatic  sprinklers 
having  a  constant  source  of  water  or  steam  supply  installed  as 
per  recommendations  under  ''Steam  Jets." 

Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  dry  rooms  clean  and  free  from 
dust  and  accumulation  of  foreign  material. 

Small  Caul  Boxes,  dry  and  heating  boxes  or  enclosures 
should  be  similarly  constructed  of  metal,  and  racks  and  hangers 
therein  should  be  of  metal.  Steam  pipes  may  constitute  the 
bottom  of  same,  if  pipes  are  protected  by  metal  screens  to  pre- 
vent material  from  coming  directly  in  contact  with  same. 

{See  Section  No.  19,  lumber  drying'  and  dry  kilns.) 

19.    LUMBER  DRYING  AND  DRY  KILNS. 

A  common  (and  special)  hazard  found  in  connection  with 
Woodworking  establishments  is  the  Dry  Kiln,  an  enclosure  used 
for  seasoning  or  drying  lumber  by  means  of  artificial  heat. 
{For  further  details  see  refort  of  this  Associatiofi  on  Lumber  and 
Lumber  Drying.)  A  medium  to  high  temperature  is  usually 
required.  The  common  method  of  heating  is  by  steam  pipes, 
the  heat  therefrom  being  circulated  in  various  ways  to  perform 
the  necessary  seasoning  functions.  Another  method  of  convey- 
ing heat  is  by  locating  steam  coils  at  the  end  of  the  kiln,  or  in  a 
separate  chamber,  and  delivering,  by  means  of  a  forced  draft, 
hot  air  from  the  coils  through  the  lumber  piles. 

These  methods  of  heating  dry  rooms,  particularly  the  latter, 
have  never  been  recognized  as  safe  measures,  and  have  resulted 
in  many  fires. 


FIELD     PRACTICK  61 

The  more  recent  method  of  drying  lumber  and  cut  stock  by 
use  of  the  so-called  "Moist  Air  Kiln"  is  much  superior  to  the 
methods  heretofore  in  common  use.  The  new  dryer  shows  a 
marked  reduction  in  the  fire  hazard,  and  such  superiority  in 
quality  of  lumber  over  that  produced  by  the  older  types  of  dry 
rooms  as  to  make  its  general  introduction  a  necessity  to  a 
modern  Woodworking  plant. 

The  common  type  of  steam  heated  Dry  Room  is  said  to 
have  an  average  fire  life  of  but  a  little  over  five  years.  With  the 
increased  use  of  the  new  kilns,  a  general  reduction  in  fire  losses 
in  Woodworking  factories  will  result.  In  general,  the  distin- 
guishing feature  of  the  new  dryers  is  the  manipulation  of  moist 
air  in  drying  the  lumber.  The  moisture  facilitates  and  improves 
the  process  by  keeping  the  pores  at  the  outer  surface  of  the 
wood  open,  thereby  allowing  the  sap  and  moisture  deep  within 
the  wood  to  escape. 

The  features  which  lessen  the  danger  from  fire  in  the  use  of 
the  new  moist  air  kilns  are  as  follows : — 

(1)  Superior  design   and  construction,  both  as   regards   the  building  and  the 

manner  of  supporting  the  steam  pipes  and  trucks. 

(2)  Cleanliness,  due  to  the  ample  space  below  the  steam  pipes,  preventing  their 

contact  with  wood  waste  and  providing  easy  access  for  removing  accumula- 
tion of  chips  and  other  refuse. 

(3)  A  continuous  circulation  of  very  moist  air  in  place  of  the  baking  process  of 

some  kilns,  or  the  strong  draft  used  in  the  blower  kilns.  This  prevents  an 
accumulation  of  heat  above  the  normal.  There  appears  to  be  no  carboniza- 
tion of  the  woodwork  inside  the  new  kiln. 

(4)  The  large  capacity  of  output  of  the  new  kilns  enables  a  given  plant  to  operate 

with  less  space  devoted  to  dry  rooms  than  in  the  older  systems. 

Although  the  hazard  of  lumber  drying  may  be  considered  as 
minimized  where  a  good  type  of  the  moist  air  kiln  is  used,  the 
usual  precautions  should  be  taken  against  fire,  such  as  the  in- 
stallation of  automatic  sprinklers,  hand  hose  or  chemical  extin- 
guishers at  the  receiving  door,  etc. 

The  replacing  of  old  style  dry  kilns  by  the  new  ones  should 
be  encouraged.  Wooden  construction  should  be  discouraged, 
and  location  inside  the  main  building  permitted  only  where  abso- 
lutely necessary. 

All  types  of  dry  kilns  should  be  of  fireproof  construction. 
They  should  preferably  be  detached  from  main  building  and  from 
lumber  yards.     Where  located  in  connection  with  main  buildings 


62  FIELD    PRACTICE 

dry    kilns    introduce    a   serious    hazard    regardless    of    type    of 
construction. 

Important  features  to  observe  aside  from  the  construction  of 
dry  kilns,  are  ventilation,  circulation,  cleanliness,  safe  arrange- 
ment of  steam  coils,  proper  cut-offs  to  communications  therein, 
and  means  of  fire  extinguishment.  Automatic  sprinklers  con- 
stitute the  best  protection. 

20.  STEAM  CHESTS  AND  BENDING. 

These  use  moist  heat  or  steam  for  bending,  sweating  and 
sizing  wood. 

Where  steam  is  used  there  is  very  little  hazard  in  connection 
with  these  devices.  There  are  instances,  however,  where  the 
source  of  heat  is  inside  the  compartment,  supplied  by  gas,  coal 
oil  lamp,  gasoline,  etc.  Under  such  conditions,  if  permitted  at 
all,  these  devices  should  be  treated  similarly  to  recommendations 
for  Dry  Rooms. 

21.  COFFEE  AND  PEANUT  ROASTERS. 

These  devices  are  usually  found  in  main  building  of  plants, 
and  should  be  installed  as  outlined  under  "Fixed  Furnaces," 
grading  ''Low." 

(a)  Especial  attention  should  be  given  the  matter  of  ventilation,  mounting,  clear- 

ance, and  construction  of  flues. 

(b)  Chaff  and  scale  from  roasters  should   be  drawn  off  by  a  metal   blow   pipe 

system  of  as  short  length  as  possible,  said  material  to  be  blown  outside 
of  building  and  into  an  incombustible  receptacle.  Automatic  dampers 
should  be  provided  at  all  blower  outlets.  All  chutes  and  hoppers  should 
be  of  metal,  with  metal  cover  at  outlets. 

(c)  Cooling  pans   should    be  provided  for   coffee  and   peanut  roasters.    They 

should  be  constructed  of  metal  and  have  metal  blow  pipes  attached  to 
them. 

(d)  Especial  attention  should  be  given  to  the  handling  and  disposition  of  fuel 

and  ashes. 

22.  SMOKE  HOUSES. 

Smoke  houses  of  an  extensive  nature  for  curing  meat  and 
fish  should  be  built  of  brick  or  similar  material,  having  a  non- 
combustible  roof,  floor,  and  interior  framing,  racks,  hangers  and 
treads  of  iron. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  68 

Smoke  houses  preferably  should  be  detached  from  main 
building,  but  where  communicating  therewith  all  openings  should 
be  provided  with  standard  metal  doors.  Communication  to  firing 
pit  at  base  should  be  similarly  protected.  Adjoining  smoke 
houses  should  extend  above  the  roof  of  main  building,  unless  a 
fire  wall  intervenes  or  roof  of  main  building  is  of  fireproof 
construction. 

Small  smoke  houses  for  retail  butchers  may  be  located  on 
the  first  or  main  floor  of  building,  and  should  have  12-inch  brick 
walls,  or  equivalent,  and  roof  of  brick  arch,  tile  or  concrete. 
Foundation  should  be  of  solid  non-combustible  material.  Flue 
to  have  8-inch  brick  walls. 

Portable  metal  smoke  houses  should  preferably  be  placed 
outside  of  building.  Where  located  inside,  walls  to  be  double  of 
at  least  No.  20  gauge  metal,  space  between  metal  to  be  not  less 
than  li  inch  and  filled  with  asbestos  (vitrified  cellular  form)  : 
smoke  pipe  to  be  of  not  less  than  No.  16  gauge  metal,  all  joints 
riveted  and  connected  to  8-inch  brick  chimney.  Clearance  and 
mounting  to  be  as  designated  under  Fixed  Furnaces,  grading 
"Medium."     Racks  and  hangers  to  be  of  metal. 

Smoke  houses  should  have  an  iron  shield  placed  at  least  3 
feet  above  fire. 

It  is  advisable  to  provide  automatic  sprinklers  or  a  steam 
jet  in  smoke  houses,  where  steam  is  available. 


7.     COMMONLY   FOUND   MISCELLANEOUS 
HAZARDS 

1.    DIP  TANKS. 

In  connection  with    japan  and  enameling  ovens  will  also  be 
found  the  dip  tank  hazard. 

(a)  These  tanks  should  be  of  metal,  limited  to  the  smallest  size  practicable  for 

the  purpose  required.  They  should  rest  either  upon  an  incombustible 
floor,  or  a  floor  covered  with  metal  so  as  to  be  readily  cleaned, 

(b)  They  should  have  metal  tops  or  covers  which   should  always   be  in  place 

when  the  tanks  are  not  in  use,  covers  preferably  to  be  automatic  closing. 
Covers  may  be  permanently  attached  to  ends  of  tank,  arranged  to  operate 
automatically  by  means  of  fusible  links  and  counterbalance  weights. 

(c)  Dip  tanks  should  be  provided  with  an  overflow  pipe  and  metal  drip  boards, 

so  that  excessive  liquid  may  flow  into  catch  drain.    The  drain  pipe  should 


64  FIELD     PRACTICE 

be  near  the  bottom  of  all  tanks,  and  contents  of  tank  should  be  drawn  oflf 
at  night  and  returned  to  oil  house  or  vault. 

(d)  Dip  tanks  should  be  located  in  a  room  used  exclusively  for  dipping  purposes, 

preferably  detached  or  properly  cut  off  above  grade  with  no  basement 
below.  Not  to  exceed  one  day's  supply  of  oils  and  mixtures  should  be 
kept  therein. 

(e)  Dipping  rooms  of  an  extensive  nature  should  be  in  a  detached  building,  or 

properly  cut  off  from  main  building,  room  preferably  to  be  fireproof  or 
of  incombustible  finish. 

(f)  There  should  be  no  open  lights  nor  flame  in  room  in  which  dipping  is  carried 

on.  Electric  lights  should  have  vapor-proof  globes,  keyless  sockets; 
switches  to  be  outside  of  room.     Steam  heating  is  advised. 

(g)  Dipping  room  should  be  well  ventilated  to  the  open  air.     Special  inquiry 

should  be  made  as  to  the  mixtures  comprising  the  dipping  fluid,  and  place 
of  storage  of  main  supply. 

(h)  An  ample  supply  of  pails  of  sand,  chemical  extinguishers,  and  blankets 
should  be  at  hand.  A  mixture  of  sawdust  and  bicarbonate  of  soda  should 
be  available  in  pails.  Steam  jets  or  automatic  sprinklers  are  also 
advisable. 

(i)  New  installations  should  be  installed  in  accordance  with  requirements  out- 
lined in  special  pamphlet. 


2.    PLATING. 

Plating  should  be  separated  from  other  processes. 

(a)  The  handling  of  acids  and  other  fluids  should  receive  careful  attention  and 

be  stored  and  handled  so  as  to  avoid  spilling. 

(b)  Concentrated  acids,  particularly  nitric,  are  hazardous  when  brought  in  con- 

tact with  wood,  excelsior,  paper,  or  cellulose  products. 
(C)     Dynamo  and  wiring  must  be  properly  installed. 

(d)     Steam  heated  "  sawdust "  dry  boxes  should  be  of  metal  construction. 
(See  Chemicals,  Paints  and  Oils.) 


3.    BLOWER    SYSTEMS    FOR    HEATING,     VENTILATING, 
STOCK  AND  REFUSE  CONVEYING. 

These  systems  are  essential  and  often  an  economic  necessity. 
They  should  be  properly  constructed  and  installed  in  order  that  the 
hazard  created  by  them  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  All  new 
installations  should  be  in  accordance  with  published  standards,  and 
existing  systems  should  be  improved  to  conform  therewith  as  far 
as  possible. 

Blower  systems  are  installed  principally  for  the  purpose  of 
automatically  carrying  off  explosive  and  inflammable  material 
through  conveyors  to  a  point  of  safety.     They  may  be  found  in 


FIELD    PRACTICE  G5 

connection  with  woodworking,  tlour,  cereal,  malt  and  other  mills; 
Sanders,  polishing  and  buffing  wheels  ;  coffee  and  peanut  roasters, 
large  cooking  ranges;  and  machinery  and  devices  producing  refuse, 
dust,  lint,  shavings,  and  high  inflammables.  Blower  systems  are 
also  commonly  used  in  connection  with  heating,  ventilating  and 
stock  conveying.  In  many  instances  they  extend  over  large  areas, 
through  floors,  partitions  and  division  and  fire  walls.  They  should 
invariably  constitute  a  separate  and  distinct  system,  designed  solely 
to  serve  the  function  for  which  they  are  provided.  All  ducts  should 
be  run  as  direct  as  possible,  avoiding  all  unnecessary  penetration 
of  fire  or  division  walls,  floors,  partitions  or  concealed  spaces. 

Extensive  blower  systems  are  common  for  heating  and  ventil- 
ating. In  these  systems,  automatic  dampers  or  stops  are  necessary 
where  ducts  pass  through  cut-off  walls,  floors  or  partitions.  Stock 
conveyors  should  also  have  such  dampers  or  stops. 

Refuse  conveying  systems  perform  the  function  of  carrying 
combustible  and  explosive  refuse  or  dust  to  a  point  of  safety,  and 
their  construction  and  installation  must  be  adequate  to  successfully 
accomplish  this. 

The  following  are  important  features  to  be  considered  in  blower 
systems : — 

(a)  Ducts  should  be  of  metal  where  practicable.    The  connections  to  machinery 

and  to  vault  or  terminal  should  be  examined. 

(b)  See  if  all  parts  of  the  fan,  cyclone,  separator  and  motive  power  are  accessible. 

Note  the  arrangement  of  journals  and  bearings.  The  fan  room  should  be 
constructed  of  incombustible  material,  all  doors  thereto  to  be  of  the  self, 
closing  type. 

(c)  Observe  if  dampers  are  installed  where  passing  through  division  walls  and 

floors. 

(d)  Hot  pipes  where  passing  through  combustible  partitions  or  floors  should  have 

proper  clearance.    Independent  floor  systems  are  advised  where  possible. 

(e)  Rooms,  chambers  or  vaults  for  receiving  materials  should  be  of  fire-resistive 

construction.  Ventilation  and  fire  protection  should  be  provided.  Auto- 
matic sprinklers  or  steam  jets  are  preferable. 

(f)  These  devices  should  be  installed  and  maintained  in  accordance  with  standard 

regulations  separately  published,  in  order  to  adequately  and  safely  perform 
the  service  for  which  they  are  intended. 

4.    PICKER  AND  GARNETTING  ROOMS. 

Unless  in  detached  or  cut  off  buildings  Pickers  for  cotton, 
wool,  moss,  hair,  excelsior,  etc.,  and  nappers,  should  be  in  a 
room  used  exclusively  for  that  purpose,  a  window  or   other   out- 


66  FIELD    PRACTICE 

side  ventilation  to  be  provided.  The  sides  and  top  of  such  rooms 
(if  not  in  fireproof  building)  should  be  of  incombustible  material, 
such  as  metal  lath  and  plaster  on  metal  framing,  or  double  sheet 
metal  with  hollow  space  of  at  least  1^-inch.  This  space  may  be 
filled  in  with  vitrified  cellular  asbestos  or  its  equivalent.  Tile 
protection  or  its  equivalent  maj  also  be  used. 

Floors  to  be  made  of  2-inch  tile  or  cement,  or  their  equivalent. 
Any  communication  into  main  section  of  building  should  have 
a  substantial  self-closing  door  equivalent  to  the  construction  of 
the  sides  of  the  room;  any  openings  for  stock  spouts,  etc.,  to  have 
automatic  dampers  or  traps. 

(a)  Such  rooms  should  be  equipped  with  automatic  sprinklers.     Where  sprinklers 

cannot  be  provided,  but  steam  is  obtainable,  a  live  steam  jet  should  be  in- 
stalled  therein,  the  same  to  be  in  accordance  with  recommendations  under 
Steam  Jets. 

(b)  Where  the  main  section  of  building  is  not  provided  with  sprinklers,  it  is  not 

a  difficult  matter  to  provide  sprinklers  in  rooms  of  this  character. 

(c)  A  chemical  fire  extinguisher  should  be  kept  outside  of  door  leading  to  the 

room, 

(d)  Machinery  bearings  must  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  dust  and  accumula- 

tions, and  no  other  combustible  material  should  be  stored  therein.  Room 
should  be  cleaned  daily. 

(e)  There  should  be  no  open  light  nor  flame  in  room. 


5.    BUFFING  WHEELS. 

Buffing  or  polishing  wheels,  emery  wheels,  etc.,  create  a  dust 
explosion  hazard,  the  material  usually  being  of  a  highly  in- 
flammable nature. 

(a)  They  should  be  located  in  a  room  designed  for  that  purpose  and  all  wood- 

work and  combustible  finish  therein  flashed  with  metal. 

(b)  These  devices  should  be  connected  to  a  metal  blow  pipe  system  discharging 

into  tight  metal  receptacles  or  fireproof  enclosures  located  outside  of 
building.  If  used  in  connection  with  celluloid  they  should  discharge  into 
water.  Lint  and  dust  therefrom  should  never  be  discharged  into  a  furnace. 
In  small  shops,  inside  vaults  built  of  boiler  plate,  with  tight  fitting  boiler 
plate  covers  and  having  outside  ventilation,  are  good  substitutes.  (See 
pamphlet  on  Blower  Systems.) 

(c)  Buffing  rooms  should  be  well  ventilated  to  the  outside  air,  and  there  should 

be  no  open  flame  light  therein.  The  room  should  be  lighted  by  electricity 
with  globes  provided  with  screens,  keyless  sockets  and  switches  outside 
of  room, 

(d)  All  shafting  should  be  kept  free  from  accumulations  of  lint  and  dust. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  07 

(e)  Hoods  at  intakes  must  be  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate  tlie  size  of  stock 

worked,  in  order  to  prevent  choking  and  to  insure  constant  operation  of 
conveyor  system. 

(f)  Where  this  hazard  is  extensive,  a  detached  or  cut  off  section  should  be  pro- 

vided for  its  exclusive  occupancy. 

(g)  Chemical  extinguishers  should  be  provided  in  buffing  rooms. 


6.    CLEANING   MACHINERY. 

Cleaning  machinery  should  vent  outside  or  to  a  good  dust- 
collecting  system,  and  be  provided  with  magnets  and  explosion 
vent  or  relief  valve. 


7.  CORN  SHELLERS. 

These  should  have  dust  pipes  attached,  venting  to  the  outside. 
Open  lights  and  flames  should  be  kept  at  least  20  feet  distant  from 
the  location  of  these  devices. 

8.  DRIP  CUPS  AND  PANS. 

(a)  Metal  drip  pans  should  be  provided  under  all  machines  using  oil,  to  catch 

drippings,  metal  borings,  shavings,  etc. 

(b)  Metal  borings  or  shavings  in  which  oil  is  used  should  never  be  deposited  in 

wooden  receptacles,  but  should  be  conveyed  outside  of  building  and  stored 
in  metal  cans  or  on  an  incombustible  floor.    (See  Spontaneous  Ignition.) 

(c)  The  contents  of  all  drip  pans  should  be  removed  from  the  building  each  night 

in  metal  receptacles. 

(d)  Metal  drip  cups  should  also  be  installed  under  all  shaft  bearings,  including 

elevator  machinery  suspended  from  ceiling. 

(e)  In  all  instances  oil  and  grease  should  be  prevented  from  coming  in  contact 

with  floors  and  walls  by  the  use  of  metal  pans  or  cups.    (See  Care  and 
Maintenance.) 

(f)  Where  substitutes  will  serve  the  purpose,  oil  should  not  be  used  for  cutting, 

drilling,  etc. 

9.  TESTING  BY  GASOLINE. 

Testing  by  gasoline  or  other  volatiles  should  be  conducted  in 
an  isolated  building. 

(a)  Where  it  is  found  necessary  to  test  inside  of  main  buildings,  rooms  should  be 

protected  as  specified  for  Japan  and  Enameling  Ovens,  and  Dipping  Rooms. 

(b)  Open  receptacles  containing  gasoline  should  never  be  used  in  main  rooms 

for  cleaning  machinery,  or  for  dipping  parts  of  stock.    ( See  also  Chemi- 
cals, Paints  and  Oils.) 


68  FIELD    PRACTICE 

lO.    MIXING  AND  COMPOUNDING. 

The  mixing  and  compounding  of  chemicals,  volatiles  and 
explosives,  with  other  matter,  is  regarded  as  extra-hazardous,  and 
these  processes  should  invariably  be  conducted  with  extreme  care. 
(See  also  Chemicals^  Paints  and  Oils.) 

Separate  buildings  should  be  selected  for  this  process.  Where 
conducted  inside  of  main  building,  a  well  cut-off  section,  of  incom- 
bustible finish,  should  be  provided. 

Such  enclosures  should  be  well  ventilated  to  the  open  air, 
should  be  free  from  direct  fire  heat  and  should  be  lighted  by 
approved  electrical  installation  with  vapor-proof  globes,  keyless 
sockets,  and  with  switches  outside  of  room. 

Volatiles  and  other  oils  should  be  pumped  to  room  through  an 
approved  piping  system,  with  shut-off  valves.  No  gravity  nor  air 
pressure  systems  to  be  permitted  (unless  by  special  arrangement). 
Excess  quantities  of  volatiles  and  mixtures  should  be  kept  outside 
of  building.  Chemical  extinguishers,  sand  pails,  burlap,  sawdust 
and  bicarbonate  of  soda  constitute  good  means  of  hand  fire  extin- 
guishment in  rooms  of  this  occupancy. 

1  1 .    EXPLOSIVES  AND  FIRE  WORKS. 

These  products  should  invariably  be  handled  as  required  by 
State  law  or  City  Ordinance,  and  as  specified  under  condition  of  fire 
insurance  policy,  if  insurance  is  carried  on  the  property  affected. 

12.  FIXED  AMMUNITION. 

Should  be  limited  to  the  smallest  amount  possible,  and  if  not 
kept  on  grade  floor  should  be  in  a  room  enclosed  by  wire  netting 
(1-4  inch  mesh)  supported  by  iron  or  heavy  wooden  supports. 

All  employees  and  the  fire  department  headquarters  should 
invariably  be  advised  of  the  location  and  extent  of  fixed  ammu- 
nition. A  conspicuous  sign  should  be  posted  designating  its 
location. 

13.  EGG  CANDLING. 

Should  be  done  by  electric  lamps,  wiring  installation  to  be 
standard. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  dd 

The  storage  of  excelsior  and  case  pads  in  egg  candling  rooms 
should  not  be  encouraged. 


14.  ASHES.  CUTTINGS,  CLIPPINGS,  ETC. 

See  Care  and  Maintenance. 

15.  WORKMEN'S  CLOTHES. 

See  Care  and  Maintenance. 

1  6.    OILY  WASTE  AND  WASTE  CANS. 

See  Care  and  Maintenance,  and  Drip  Cups  and  Pans. 


Ill 
POWER    HAZARDS 

1.  Steam  Boilers. 

2.  Electric  Power — Electric  Motors. 

3.  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engines. 

4.  Fuel   Oil    under  Boilers    and    Furnaces,  and   for   Do- 

mestic Use. 

5.  Refrigeration. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  78 


POWER   HAZARDS 

The  location  and  arrangement  of  the  equipment  furnishing 
power  should  receive  especial  consideration.  Continuous  operation 
of  machinery  is  dependent  upon  the  power  plant,  the  disablement  of 
which,  either  by  fire  or  other  means,  entails  delays  and  incon- 
venience. It  is  therefore  of  great  importance  that  the  power  plant 
be  so  installed  that  it  may  not  be  rendered  inoperative  by  fire.  (See 
Steam  Boilers  under  Fire  Protection.) 

Motive  power  is  obtained  from  numerous  sources:  Steam, 
dependent  upon  boilers  ;  steam,  transmitted  from  a  central  station  ; 
electricity,  generated  on  the  premises  or  transmitted  from  a  central 
station ;  gas  and  gasoline  engines  on  the  premises.  The  common 
fuels  used  for  generating  motive  power  are  Coal,  Gas,  Gasoline  and 
Fuel  Oil.     In  many  instances  Coke  and  Wood  are  used. 

Where  possible,  a  detached  building  of  fireproof  construction 
throughout  should  be  provided  for  power  and  heating  equipment, 
to  be  used  exclusively  for  the  same.  Where  space  will  not  permit 
of  this  the  best  substitute  is  a  fireproof  compartment  for  housing 
the  power  equipment,  properly  cut  off  from  building  or  buildings 
constituting  the  main  structure.  Where  this  is  not  possible,  the 
following  methods  of  installation  and  maintenance  should  be 
followed. 


1.    STEAM   BOILERS 

These  should  be  installed  in  accordance  with  recommendations 
for  Fixed  Furnaces,  grading  "  Medium."  Where  not  in  a  fireproof 
building,  their  setting,  mounting  and  clearance  should  be  in  strict 
conformity  therewith.  This  also  applies  to  the  arrangement  and 
clearance  of  breeching,  stacks  and  chimneys.  It  is  preferable  to 
have  the  Engine  Room  in  a  separate  compartment. 

In  the  proper  maintenance  of  boiler  and  engine  rooms,  the 
following  features  should  receive  attention  : — 

(a)  Examine  setting  of  boiler  or  boilers,  and  clearance  at  sides  and  top.    This 

applies  to  boiler,  breeching  and  stack. 

(b)  Fuel  should  not  be  stored  against  boiler  walls  or  in  wood  enclosures.    Cer- 

tain fuels  are  liable  to  self-ignition. 


74\  FIELD    PRACTICE 

(c)  Ashes  should  not  be  stored  nor  dumped  upon  a  combustible  floor.     If  not 

conveyed  from  furnace  by  a  conveyor  system  to  outside  dump,  ashes 
should  be  placed  in  metal  barrels  and  removed  from  boiler  room  daily. 

(d)  Boilers  and  engines  should  be  under  the  supervision  of  licensed  men,  and 

should  receive  customary  State  inspection.  Boilers  should  be  cleaned  at 
proper  intervals,  should  never  be  permitted  to  carry  too  low  water  level, 
nor  should  they  be  filled  with  cold  water  while  in  a  heated  state. 

(e)  Boiler  and  engine  room  should  be  occupied  exclusively  for  power  purposes 

and  be  free  from  unnecessary  storage  of  combustibles,  refuse  or  oils.  Daily 
supply  of  oils  necessary  in  engine  room  should  be  kept  in  metal  cans,  with 
metal  drip  pans. 

(f)  Top  of  boilers  should  not  be  used  for  the  storage  or  drying  of  combustible 

material,  such  as  lumber,  workmen's  clothes  or  odds  and  ends. 

(g)  If  floor  of  engine  room  is  of  wood,  it  should  be  kept  free  from  oil  and  grease, 

and  metal  drip  pans  provided  where  necessary, 
(h)  Where  it  is  necessary  to  protect  ceiling  or  roof  above  boilers,  asbestos  and 
sheet  metal  should  be  provided  in  such  a  way  as  to  follow  the  contour 
thereof  and  thus  leave  no  concealed  spaces  between  joists.  In  lieu  of  this, 
conditions  may  permit  flue,  etc.,  to  be  insulated  with  two  to  four  inches 
magnesia  lagging  or  equivalent,  leaving  the  ceiling  open  for  inspection. 
(See  Furnaces  and  Stacks. ) 

1.    STEAM   BOILER   EXPLOSION   PRECAUTIONS. 

Steam  boilers  are  subject  to  explosion,  which  is  frequently  the 
result  of  deterioration  through  neglect,  or  the  lack  of  careful  exam- 
ination before  starting  fires  after  a  period  of  inaction. 

While  expert  inspection  is  desirable,  intelligent  care  and  under- 
standing of  these  devices  are  possible  to  everyone.  Boilers  out  of 
commission  in  summer  should  be  overhauled  at  the  time  they  are 
shut  down,  to  insure  proper  operative  condition  when  fires  are 
again  started.  Thorough  examination  and  certified  test  by  a  com- 
petent boiler  inspector  is  advocated. 

The  following  points  should  receive  consideration  : — 

(a)  Before  filling  boiler  with  water,  every  accessible  part  of  it,  both  internally 

and  externally,  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned. 

(b)  Take  down  smokepipe  and  remove  soot  from  it;  in  case  of  tubular  or  flue 

boilers,  clean  out  the  tubes  or  flues.  When  replaced,  examine  the  joints, 
making  sure  of  their  tightness,  giving  attention  also  to  supports. 

(c)  Examine  brick  work  of  setting;  see  that  external  surface  of  boiler  is  clean 

and  in  good  repair;  and  remove  all  soot,  dust  and  ashes  from  grates,  etc. 

(d)  See  that  gauge-cocks  and  connections  to  water  column  are  clear  of  sediment 

and  are  operative— if  necessary,  temporarily  remove  them  to  determine 
this.    After  replacing,  frequently  operate  gauge-cocks. 

(e)  Examine  feed  valve,  ascertaining  if  any  parts  of  boiler  show  corrosion  or 

pitting  and,  if  so,  cleanse  and  dry  the  metal ;  if  necessary,  scrape  and 
brush  it,  painting  the  affected  parts  with  red  lead  and  oil,  allowing  same 
to  dry  thoroughly — then  clean  with  hose  stream. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  75 

(f)  In  filling:  boiler,  leave  a  vent  open  somewhere  for  escape  of  air.    If  boiler  is 

to  be  filled  only  to  working  level,  open  the  upper  gauge-cock,  but  if  it  is  to 
be  completely  filled  ease  safety  valve  from  its  seat,  or  leave  some  other 
opening  at  or  near  top  of  boiler  to  prevent  trapping  of  air  in  upper  part  of 
boiler. 

(g)  When  feasible,  safety  valve  should  be  tested  by  hydrostatic  pressure  before 

boiler  is  placed  in  service  to  see  that  it  operates  at  the  pressure  for  which 
it  is  supposed  to  be  set. 

(h)  Look  over  boiler  accessories  and  attachments.  Raise  safety  valve  from  its 
seat  and  if  it  does  not  operate  freely,  see  at  once  that  the  trouble  is  cor- 
rected before  firing.  Examine  diaphragm  of  automatic  damper  regulator, 
seeing  that  it  is  positively  operative.  If  not,  replace  it  with  a  new  one. 
See  that  diaphragm  connections  and  dampers  work  smoothly  and  easily. 

(I)  Run  fire  low  at  start,  increasing  slowly-  <o  a  gradual  rise  of  heat. 
Open  supply  and  return  valves  of  heating  system  when  steam  is  generated 
so  that  pipes  will  Mrarm  up  gradually.  (Similar  action  to  be  taken  in 
instances  of  hot  water  boilers.) 

(J)  As  soon  as  steam  is  raised,  again  lift  safety  valve,  seeing  that  it  is  free  and 
in  working  order.  It  is  well  to  run  the  pressure  to  a  point  at  which  safety 
valve  is  supposed  to  blow,  in  order  to  be  sure  of  its  proper  operation. 


2.    UPRIGHT  STEAM   BOILERS. 

Small  boilers  of  this  type  are  unfortunately  sometimes  found 
above  the  grade  floor. 

(a)  Their  installation  should  be  carefully  examined. 

(b)  They  should  rest  upon  an  incombustible  floor,  floor  to   be  constructed  as 

required  for  Fixed  Furnaces,  grading  "  Medium." 

(c)  They  should  be  cut  off  from  other  rooms  by  means  of  incombustible  parti- 

tions. 

(d)  They  should  be  covered  or  encased  with  magnesia  asbestos   at  least  two 

inches  thick,  or  its  equivalent. 

(e)  Stack  to  be  installed  as  required  for  Chimneys  and  Flues. 

(f )  Boilers  should  be  at  least  three  feet  from  any  combustible  walls  or  partitions. 

(g)  Ashes  should  be  removed  daily  in  metal  cans,  and  fuel  kept  in  small  quanti- 

ties in  a  bin  of  fireproof  construction, 
(h)     Otherwise  the  upkeep  should  be  as  outlined  for  Steam  Boilers. 

2.     ELECTRIC    POWER 

Electric  generating  equipments  should  be  installed  in  espe- 
cially designed  buildings,  properly  adapted  for  the  purpose,  pre- 
ferably of  fire  resistive  construction  throughout,  and  separated 
from  exposure  or  direct  communication  to  the  main  plant. 

Boilers  should  be  in  a  separate  compartment  from  that 
housing  the  electric  generating  plant. 


76  FIELD    PRACTICE 

The  electrical  installation  should  be  in  every  detail  in 
accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  National  Electrical 
Code,  and  should  be  placed  in  a  dry,  well  ventilated  and  lighted 
building,  free  from  any  other  occupancy  or  process  hazards. 

Many  existing  equipments  do  not  fully  conform  to  standard 
requirements.  In  such  cases  proper  maintenance  and  care  may 
prevent  any  serious  trouble.  These  equipments  should  be  under 
the  constant  supervision  of  an  engineer  or  mechanic  fully 
acquainted  with  all  the  details  of  operation  and  installation. 

In  ordinary  electric  power  installations,  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  following  features  : — 

(a)  Switchboards  of  wood   or  wood-skeleton  type,  treated  with  oil,  varnish  or 

insulating  compound,  are  of  antiquated  type,  and  should  be  replaced  by 
those  of  modern  design,  constructed  entirely  of  non-combustible  non- 
absorbent  insulating  materials.  Switchboards  built  of  planks  closely 
nailed  together  are  especially  dangerous, 

(b)  All  switchboards  must  be  provided  with  a  reliable  ground-detecting  device 

and  necessary  circuit  breakers  or  fuses  of  a  standard  type. 

(c)  Observe  that  terminals  of  underground  conduit  or  ducts  at  both  generator 

and  switchboard  are  properly  sealed  and  so  located  as  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  water  or  dirt  therein.  All  such  terminals  should  extend  above 
floor  line  the  full  limit  of  available  space. 

(d)  Fuses  require  constant  supervision  and  should  be  preferably  of  the  enclosed 

type. 

(e)  Space  behind  switchboard  must  be  kept  free  from  rubbish  or  combustible 

materials. 

(f )  All  outgoing  lines  should  be  provided  with  approved  lightning  arresters. 

(g)  The  arrangement  and  spacing  of   cables   should   be  observed.       Even   in 

instances  of  lead  covered  cables  an  arc  may  melt  off"  the  lead  and  burn  the 
insulation.  Cables  should  not  be  too  closely  bunched  or  grouped;  exten- 
sive damage  to  insulation  may  result  from  fire  in  bunched  cables. 

(h)  Old-fashioned  oil  switches  with  open  top  and  wooden  interiors,  where  found, 
should  be  replaced  with  approved  devices. 

(i)  Current  transmitted  from  high  voltage  lines  should  enter  transformers  prop- 
erly installed  outside  of  building  or  in  a  well  ventilated  fireproof  vault 
properly  cut  off.  Oil-filled  transformers  should  always  be  surrounded  by 
a  curbing  of  sufficient  height  to  contain  fully  as  much  oil  as  is  contained 
in  the  transformers  themselves,  and  ample  drainage  should  be  provided 
at  floor  level.  Note  that  oil-filled  transformers  should  never  be  installed 
inside  of  main  building,  if  possible  to  avoid  it. 

(j)  No  oils  nor  volatiles  of  any  kind  whatsoever  should  be  kept  in  generator  room 
except  the  daily  supply  of  lubricating  oils  in  metal  receptacles.  There 
should  be  no  accumulations  of  dry  or  used  waste  in  generator  room. 
Adequate  standard  metal  waste  cans  and  hand  fire  protection  should  be 
installed.    (See  Sections  on  Electric  Lighting  and  Electric  Motors.) 


FIELD     PRACTICE  7t 

ELECTRIC  MOTORS. 

All    motors   should   be   installed   in  a  dry   and   well    lighted 
location,  to  which  free  access  may  be  had  at  all  times. 

(a)  Motors  should  be  equipped  with  a  substantial  metal  drip  pan  to  catch  all 

waste  oil. 

(b)  All  motors,  regardless  of  size,  should  be  protected  by  proper  fuses  or  circuit 

breakers,  and  switches  at  each  motor  should  be  of  a  type  that  will  posi- 
tively cut  off  all  current  when  motor  is  not  in  operation.  All  starting 
boxes  and  controlling  devices,  except  in  specially  authorized  cases,  should 
be  in  immediate  sight  of  motor. 

(c)  All  motors  installed  in  dusty  and  linty  places  where  readily  ignitible  material 

is  present,  should  be  of  enclosed  type  or  be  placed  in  enclosures  constructed 
preferably  of  non-combustible  material  with  ample  amount  of  fine  wire 
screen  to  afford  good  ventilation. 

(d)  To  avoid  such  locations  where  possible,  it  is  advisable  that  motor  should 

drive  machinery  through  the  medium  of  a  shaft  fitting  tightly  in  a  wall 
bushing,  motor  being  on  opposite  side  of  wall  or  partition. 

(e)  All   rheostats  and  starting  boxes,  unless  mounted  on  switchboards,  should 

be  mounted  on  slate  or  other  non-combustible  insulating  material,  unless 
mounted  on  substantial  iron  brackets  which  will  separate  them  one  foot 
from  combustible  material,  or  unless  mounted  on  cement  or  concrete  floors. 

(f)  Motors  must  be  of  sufficient  capacity;  must  be  kept  clean,  must  be  regularly 

oiled  and  otherwise  given  proper  care,  and  commutators  kept  smooth. 

(g)  Motors  should  be  in  the  care  of  a  competent  man  who  should  periodically 

inspect  them.  (See  Sections  on  Electric  Power  and  Electric  Lighting.) 
Note. — Although  not  a  specific  requirement  of  the  National  Electrical  Code, 
it  is  advisable  that  motors  used  in  places  similar  to  the  following  should  be  placed 
in  a  separate  room  outside  of  that  in  which  hazardous  processes  are  carried  on : 
Leather  coating  where  "  daub  "  is  used ;  mixing  rooms  where  volatile  liquids  are 
used;  dry  cleaning  establishments  using  benzine,  gasoline  or  naphtha;  celluloid 
manufacturers;  celluloid  film  rooms;  japan  rooms;  automobile  garages;  varnish 
factories  where  naphtha  is  used  for  thinning  mixtures;  acetylene  generating 
rooms;  acetylene  filling  stations. 


3.     GAS    AND    GASOLINE    ENGINES 

The  standard  regulations  in  published  pamphlet  should  be 
followed  in  the  installation  of  these  devices. 

Gas  and  Gasoline  Engines  should  preferably  be  located  in  a 
specially  devised  building  or  room.  Where  such  is  not  obtain- 
able, grade  floor  location  should  be  selected.  In  any  event,  all 
wood  floors  and  partitions  in  engine  room  should  be  protected  in 
order  to  prevent  saturation  with  grease  and  oil  customarily  found 
in  connection  with  these  devices. 


78  FIELD     PRACTICE 

In  inspecting  these  devices  the  following  features  should   be 
observed : — 

(a)  Gas  or  gasoline  engines  should  not  be  located  in  rooms  where  dust  and 

inflammable  flyings  prevail,  or  materials  of  any  sort  are  stored.  The 
engine  room  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  accumulations  of  oil  and 
grease,  and  should  be  well  ventilated.  Rooms  containing  gasoline  engines 
should  be  lighted  by  electricity  and  be  free  from  open  flame  or  heat.  A 
waste  can  and  chemical  extinguisher  should  be  provided  therein.  Observe 
if  engine  is  an  approved  type. 

(b)  If  gas  bags  are  used  for  gas  engines,  they  must  be  enclosed  in  a  substantial 

gas-tight  metal  drum,  vented  to  the  outer  air  through  a  pipe  used  for  no 
other  purpose. 

(c)  Regulators  should  be  so  designed  as  to  prevent  the  flow  of  gas  into  room  in 

case  the  engine  shuts  down  from  any  cause.  Pressure  regulators  should  be 
of  approved  construction.  If  a  pulsating  gasometer  is  used,  a  valve  should 
be  located  on  pipe  to  the  same,  and  be  accessible. 

(d)  Note  if  piping  is  properly  installed  and  allowances  are  made  for  expansion 

and  contraction,  jarring  and  vibration. 

(e)  Careful  examination  of  exhaust  pots   should  be  made.     See  that   they   are 

placed  on  firm  foundation  and  at  least  twelve  inches  from  woodwork  or 
combustible  material. 

(f)  Exhaust  pipe,  whether  direct  from  engine  or  from  mufflers  should,  where 

practicable,  be  carried  above  the  roof  of  the  building  in  which  the  engine 
is  contained,  and  above  adjoining  buildings.  When  buildings  are  too 
high  to  make  this  practicable,  the  pipe  should  end  at  least  ten  feet  from  any 
wall  opening. 

No  exhaust  pipe  should  be  within  nine  inches  of  any  woodwork  or  any  wooden 
lath  and  plaster  partition  or  ceiling. 

Where  exhaust  pipes  pass  through  combustible  partitions,  they  should  be 
guarded  by  galvanized  iron  ventilated  thimbles  at  least  twelve  inches 
larger  in  diameter  than  the  pipes,  or  by  galvanized  iron  thimbles  built  in 
at  least  eight  inches  of  brickwork  or  other  incombustible  material.  They 
should  not  under  any  circumstances  be  connected  into  chimneys  or  flues, 
except  that  the  pipe  may  pass  up  in  flues  used  for  no  other  purpose.  No 
exhaust  pipe  should  pass  through  any  floor,  nor  through  a  roof  having 
wooden  framework  or  covering  without  special  insulation  and  ventilated 
thimble. 

Note.— This  pipe  is  liable  to  become  very  hot  and  should  have  additional 
protection  where  dust  or  inflammable  flyings  are  present, 

(g)  Hot  tube  ignition  is  hazardous.     Electric  ignition  only  should  be  used. 

(h)     Note  if  gasoline  feed  cup  is  rigidly  secured  to  engine,  and  is  in  proper  order 

and  properly  operating, 
(i)      Water  pockets  in  exhaust  pipes  should  be  provided  with  suitable  means  for 

drainage, 
(j)      Due  consideration  should  be  given  the  cleaning  of  the  cylinders,  valves  and 

exhaust  pipe,  as  often  as  the  quality  of  the  fuel  may  necessitate, 
(k)     Observe  the  location  of  gasoline  supply  tank.    This  should  be  buried,  as  per 

published  standard. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  (i) 

(1)  Note  if  openings  for  pipes  through  outside  walls  are  securely  cemented  and 
made  water,  gas  and  oil-tight. 

(m)   Observe  if  fill  and  vent  pipes  are  properly  installed. 

(n)  Observe  if  gasoline  feed  pump  is  properly  installed  and  in  proper  working 
order,  and  provided  with  check  valves. 

(o)  In  no  event  should  supply  tanks  of  gasoline  be  erected  on  the  walls  of  the 
building.     Gravity  feed  is  hazardous,  regardless  of  location  of  supply  tank. 

(p)  Portable  gasoline  engines  should  comply  in  all  particulars  with  standard 
regulations.  Gasoline  tank  should  be  filled  during  daylight  hours  only, 
and  while  the  engine  is  not  in  operation.  Tanks  should  be  filled  by  means 
of  safety  cans  from  properly  installed  gasoline  supply  tiink. 

(q)  Private  natural  gas  wells  should  have  a  duplicate  system  of  pressure  regula- 
tion, one  at  outlet  from  well  and  one  between  well  outlet  and  service  con- 
nection, or  at  outlet  from  gasometer  or  storage  tank,  if  any.  Where 
pressure  from  private  natural  gas  wells  is  greater  than  50  pounds,  there 
should  be  at  least  two  pressure  regulators  at  well,  so  that  in  no  event  a 
pressure  exceeding  8  ounces  could  be  delivered  at  burners.  Special 
inquiry  should  be  made,  in  instances  of  private  gas  wells,  as  to  the  proba- 
ble extent  of  supply  and  pressure  fluctuations.  For  ordinary  lighting  and 
cooking  purposes  4-ounce  pressure  is  ample.  For  power  and  manufactur- 
ing purposes  this  pressure  is  sometimes  exceeded. 

(r)  These  engines  should  be  well  cared  for  at  all  times,  and  be  under  the  charge 
of  a  man  familiar  with  their  construction  and  operation. 

4.     FUEL  OIL  UNDER  BOILERS   AND   FURNACES, 
AND   FOR    DOMESTIC    USE. 

All  heating  devices  using  fuel  oil  should  be  installed  and 
protected  in  accordance  with  recommendations  for  Fixed  Fur- 
naces and  Chimneys  and  Flues. 

In  connection  with  the  use  of  fuel  oil,  the  inspector  should 
ascertain  the  exact  nature  of  the  oil  in  use.  There  is  a  great 
distinction  between  "fuel  oil"  and  "crude  oil."  In  some  in- 
stances "crude  oil"  has  been  found  in  use.  Crude  oil  should 
not  be  used  under  any  circumstances,  as  it  is  an  unrefined 
product  and  contains  volatiles  such  as  gasoline. 

For  this  use  fuel  oil  must  show  a  flash  test  not  lower  than 
150  degrees  Fahr.  (Abel-Pensky). 

These  systems  introduce  a  hazard,  and  their  installation 
should  conform  to  regulations  in  separately  published  pamphlet. 

In  the  reinspection  of   these  equipments,  assuming  that   the 
original    installation  was   in   accordance  with   standard   require- 
ments, the  following  items  should  be  observed  :  — 
(a)  Note  if  heating  device  is  properly  constructed  and  mounted,  and  if  there  is 
proper  clearance  from  combustible  material,  and  proper  ventilation. 


80  FIELD    PRACTICE 

(b)  Auxiliary  supply  tank  for  apparatus  for  cooking  and  light  domestic  purposes 

upon  a  small  scale  should  preferably  be  outside  of  building  and  should  not 
exceed  five  gallons  capacity.  If  inside  the  building,  tank  should  not 
exceed  one  gallon  capacity.  In  any  event,  tank  should  be  at  least  ten  feet 
from  the  burners. 

(c)  Pipe  connections  to  burners,  particularly  in  large  forge  shops,  are  often  sub- 

ject to  breakage,  and  should  be  installed  so  as  to  avoid  iniury.  Where 
flexible  connections  to  burners  are  essential,  metallic  hose  preferably 
should  be  used.  An  extra  supply  of  hose  should  be  on  hand.  Damaged 
or  patched  hose  is  dangerous. 

(d)  There  should   be  a  controlling  valve,  easily  accessible  and   plainly  marked, 

located  at  a  point  at  which  oil  supply  to  burners  may  be  instantly  shut  off. 

(e)  All  connections  should  be  perfectly  tight  with  well  fitted  threaded   joints, 

made  tight  with  litharge  and  glycerine  cement.  Flanges,  where  used, 
should  be  faced  and  packed  with  copper  gaskets. 

(f)  Openings  for  pipes  in  outside  walls  should  be  securely  cemented  and  made 

oil-tight. 

(g)  Gauge  glasses,  the  breakage  of  which  would  allow  the  escape  of  oil,  should 

be  condemned. 

(h)  The  size  of  the  orifice  through  which  the  oil  is  supplied  to  the  burners  should 
be  limited  to  furnish  only  sufficient  oil  for  the  maximum  burning  conditions 
when  controlling  valves  are  wide  open. 

(I)  Burners  containing  chambers  which  allow  the  dangerous  accumulation  of 
gases,  should  not  be  used.  Burners  containing  oil  conveying  pipes  or 
parts  subject  to  intense  heat  or  subject  to  stoppage  from  carbonization, 
should  be  condemned.  Burners  should  be  so  designed  that  they  can  be 
easily  cleaned  and  so  as  not  to  allow  leakage  of  oil  under  any  conditions. 

(J)  Where  oil  is  fed  direct  to  burners  from  main  supply  tank  by  pumps,  see 
that  no  excessive  pressure  may  be  produced;  and  see  if  pumps  have  auto- 
matic control,  so  that  surplus  oil  may  be  run  back  to  supply  tank, 

(k)  All  pipes  leading  from  the  supply  tank  should  be  so  laid  that  they  will  drain 
back  to  it,  and  all  piping  in  connection  with  the  apparatus  should  be  so 
arranged  that  it  can  be  drained  back  to  the  supply  tank.  The  overflow 
and  return  pipes  should  be  larger  than  supply  pipe. 

(I)  A  valve  for  cutting  off  the  oil  supply  in  case  of  accident  should  be  installed 
where  readily  accessible  (in  addition  to  Item  d),  as  near  as  practicable  to 
the  point  where  the  supply  pipe  leaves  the  tank.  When  the  oil  supply  is 
taken  from  two  or  more  tanks  the  necessary  valves  and  connections  should 
be  installed  for  cutting  off  tank  or  tanks  while  being  filled. 

(m)  Observe  if  main  supply  tank  is  provided  with  steam  supply  pipe  for  heating. 
This  pipe  should  not  be  inside  of  tank.  If  tank  is  buried  steam  supply  pipe 
should  be  in  pit  in  connection  therewith,  and  if  elevated  a  loop  of  pipe 
around  the  tank  near  the  top  with  connections  feeding  into  the  tank  at 
frequent  intervals,  will  cover  this  requirement.  Note  if  steam  pipe  is 
properly  connected  for  its  supply. 

(n)  Supply  and  discharge  pumps,  pipe  connections,  and  controlling  valves 
should  all  be  checked  up. 

(o)  Observe  location,  capacity,  material,  and  height  of  main  supply  tank  or 
tanks.    If  more  than   one  tank,  observe  the  distance  between  them.    If 


FIELD     PRACTICE  81 

tank  or  tunks  are  elevated  or  rest  above  ground,  note  if  there  is  the  re- 
quired embankment  or  dyke,  of  not  less  than  four  feet  in  heij>:ht  around 
same,  and  if  its  capacity  of  enclosure  is  sufficient  to  hold  the  entire  oil 
contents. 

(p)  Air  pressure  and  gravity  feed  systems  from  main  supply  tank  or  tanks 
should  be  discouraged.  Either  a  direct  pumping  system  or  auxiliary 
g-ravity  supply  tanks  of  a  small  capacity  are  preferable  methods  for  sup- 
plying oil  to  burners. 

(q)  Observe  if  sfcindpipes  or  auxiliary  tanks,  if  used,  exceed  the  required  capacity 
of  ten  gallons  each,  for  manufacturing  use.  Note  their  construction,  and 
if  they  are  equipped  with  an  overflow  pipe  so  arranged  that  the  oil  will 
automatically  drain  back  to  main  supply  tank  immediately  upon  closing 
down  of  pump. 

(r)  A  card  giving  complete  instructions  regarding  care  and  operation  of  system 
should  be  permanently  placed  in  a  conspicuous  location.  A  competent 
man  should  be  in  charge  to  superintend  system. 


5.     REFRIGERATION. 

While  recognized  generally  as  a  special  hazard,  refrigeration 
equipments  have  now  become  common,  and  are  found  in  many 
wholesale  and  retail  commercial  establishments,  as  well  as  in 
manufacturing  plants.  Their  hazards  should  be  understood  and 
installations  guarded  accordingly. 

While  sometimes  located  in  a  separate  building  or  section  cut 
off  from  main  building,  as  it  should  be,  this  equipment  will  be 
often  found  in  main  building. 

Brine  circulation  and  the  direct  expansion  ammonia  system 
are  the  two  processes  used  in  refrigeration.  The  latter  process  is 
considered  the  more  hazardous,  and  the  following  features  should 
be  closely  observed  : — 

Ammonia  as  a  Refrigerating  Medium. 

(a)  Ammonia  gas  charged  with  vaporized  oil  is  explosive  when  mixed  with  air. 

Refrigerating  plants  should,  therefore,  be  located  in  rooms  cut  off  in  a 
standard  manner  from  boiler  rooms,  electric  generating  plants,  etc.,  or 
rooms  in  which  any  open  fires  or  lights  may  be  present.  No  lighting, 
other  thanjncandescent  electric  lamps,  and  no  stoves,  forges,  torches,  nor 
other  open  fires  should  be  allowed  in  the  refrigerating  machinery  room. 

(b)  Escaping  ammonia  interferes  seriously  with  the  work  of  the  firemen,  due  to 

its  suffocating  effects.  Brine  circulation  in  cold  storage  rooms  is,  there- 
fore, preferable  to  direct  expansion  of  ammonia.  The  use  of  cold  air 
ducts  and  power-driven  fans  in  cold  storage  rooms  is  also  objectionable, 
unless  provision  is  made  for  automatic  closing  dampers  in  ducts  and  for 
stopping  of  fans. 


82  FIELD    PRACTICE 

(c)  Ammonia  containers  (steel  drums  or  cylinders)  should  be  kept  in  cold  tem- 

peratures, and  where  they  are  not  likely  to  be  exposed  to  a  fire  in  the  plant. 

(d)  Cojnpression  System  :  Compressors  discharge  ammonia  normally  at  a  pres- 

sure of  125  to  170  pounds;  abnormally  high  pressure  in  cylinder,  due  to 
derangement  of  machinery  or  back  flow  of  liquid,  may  cause  a  break 
permitting  vaporized  oil  and  ammonia  to  escape. 

(e)  Steam  or  water  power  is  preferred  for  operating  compressors,  to  electricity, 

gas  or  oil  power.  Automatic  stop  devices  for  compressors,  however,  are 
available  for  all  kinds  of  power,  and  where  electric  power  is  used,  are 
simple  and  reliable. 

(f)  Relief  valves   should   be  provided   in   cylinder  heads   of  compressors,  and 

should  preferably  be  made  to  discharge  outside  of  building. 

(g)  Injection  of  oil  to  cylinders  for  cooling  purposes  is  not  considered  desirable. 

(Water-cooled  cylinders  are  generally  used.) 

Note. — It  is  suggested  that  automatic  check  valves  be  provided  in  dis- 
charge and  suction  pipes  to  prevent  escape  of  entire  charge  of  ammonia  in 
the  event  of  accident  to  compressor.  Ammonia  compressors  should  not 
be  used  in  connection  with  air  testing  of  piping  wherein  ammonia  has 
been  previously  used, 
(h)  Breakage  of  glass  gauges  on  oil  traps  or  liquid  ammonia  receivers  may 
permit  vapors  to  escape,  consequently,  outside  blow-off  valve  should  be 
provided  on  condensers  for  the  discharge  of  non-condensable  gases  or  air 
when  necessary.  The  cocks  on  glass  gauges  at  oil  traps  and  liquid 
receivers  should  be  kept  closed  except  for  inspection  from  time  to  time 
when  necessary;  gauges  should  be  fitted  with  automatic  ball  stops. 

Carbon  Dioxide  as  a  Refrigerating-  Medium. 

(a)  High  pressure  (1,000  pounds),  as  used  in  these  systems,  increases  the  danger 

of  explosions  or  breaks. 

(b)  The  hazard  from  vaporized  oil  in  the  compressor  is  also  probably  increased, 

owing  to  greater  quantity  used  and  high  pressure  at  which  these  systems 
are  operated. 

(c)  Practically  the  same  safeguards  should  be  provided  as  suggested  for  ammonia 

systems.  Escaping  carbon  dioxide  gas  is,  however,  not  so  injurious  as 
ammonia  gas. 


IV 

CHEMICALS,  PAINTS  AND  OILS 

1.  Chemicals. 

2.  Chemicals    that    are  Rendered    Hazardous    if   Influ- 

enced by  Water  or  Moisture. 

3.  Sulphur  and  Phosphorus. 

4.  Nitrates  and  Chlorates. 

5.  Picric  Acid. 

6.  Nitro-Cellulose  or  Soluble  Gun-Cotton. 

7.  Experimental  Work. 

8.  Inflammable  Volatiles. 

9.  Storage    and    Handling    of    Inflammable    Volatiles — 

Gasoline,  etc. 

10.  Paints  and  Oils — Paint  Stock. 

11.  Lacquers. 

12.  Paint  and  Oil  Stock  Room  Precautions. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  86 

HAZARDOUS     CHEMICALS.    PAINTS.    OILS    AND 
INFLAMMABLE    VOLATILES 

Various  chemicals,  as  well  as  paints  and  oils,  are  liable  to 
be  found  in  most  manufacturing,  and  in  some  mercantile 
properties. 

Some  chemicals  possess  hazards  inherent  in  themselves, 
while  others  are  hazardous  only  when  in  contact  with  substances 
with  which  they  will  readily  combine. 

It  is  important,  therefore,  that  where  chemicals  of  any  kind 
are  used,  their  nature  should  be  ascertained,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  kept  or  stored  should  be  investigated ;  also  the 
way  in  which  they  are  handled  in  actual  use. 

Stocks  of  white  lead,  zinc  and  colors  ground  in  oil  do  not 
possess  any  special  hazards,  except  that  being  combustible, 
they  will  burn  freely  if  heated  to  their  ignition  temperature. 

The  handling  and  use  of  paints  do,  however,  present 
serious  hazards,  if  materials  such  as  rags,  paper,  sawdust,  etc., 
which  have  absorbed  them,  are  not  promptly  removed  or 
destroyed. 

Some  mixed  paints  and  many  varnishes  contain  inflammable 
volatiles,  and  where  these  are  prepared  or  used,  special  precau- 
tions are  necessary  as  regards  open  lights  or  fires. 

1.     CHEMICALS 

(a)  Carboys  of  strong-  acids  should  if  possible  be  stored  outside.    If  inside,  they 

should  be  in  a  well  drained  and  well  ventilated  room,  as  the  liberated 
fumes  from  broken  carboys,  or  fumes  caused  by  the  action  of  acids  on 
other  materials,  not  only  retard  the  work  of  extinguishing  a  fire,  but  may 
be  fatal  to  life.    Nitric  acid  is  especially  dangerous  in  this  respect. 

(b)  The  surroundings  of  carboys  containing  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid  should  be 

kept  free  from  combustible  material  such  as  straw,  hay,  shavings,  paper, 
etc.,  as  the  leaking  acid  from  a  broken  carboy  coming  into  contact  there- 
with would  result  in  heating  and  possible  ignition.  For  this  reason,  nitric 
acid  carboys  are  now  packed  in  cork  chips  instead  of  hay. 
Where  strong  acids  are  used  from  carboys,  some  form  of  rocking  devices, 
such  as  are  now  on  the  market,  should  be  used,  as  they  minimize  the 
danger  of  breakage.  It  is  also  recommended  that  under  each  carboy 
should  be  placed  a  shallow  lead-lined  tray  or  pan  having  a  capacity  some- 
what in  excess  of  the  carboy. 


86  FIELD    PRACTICK 

(c)  Burlap  used  for  securing-  the  stoppers  in  carboys  containing  strong  nitric 
acid  sliould  be  destroyed  when  removed,  for  it  is  easily  ignited  if  acted 
upon  by  the  acid. 
"When  storing  strong  ammonia,  or  anhydrous  ammonia,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  their  fumes,  while  not  inflammable,  seriously  interfere  with 
the  work  of  the  firemen. 

2.     CHEMICALS    THAT    ARE     RENDERED 

HAZARDOUS  IF  INFLUENCED   BY 

WATER  OR  MOISTURE 

Lime,  sodium  peroxide  and  zinc  dust,  if  moderately 
moistened  with  water,  may  evolve  sufficient  heat  to  ignite  com- 
bustible material  in  contact  with  them. 

Lime  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  location,  preferably  above 
ground  level. 

Sodium  peroxide,  found  in  straw  works  and  some  woolen 
mills,  usually  comes  packed  in  10  pound  screw  top  cans  and 
should  be  kept  where  not  exposed  to  moisture  or  corrosion. 
It  should  be  carefully  prevented  from  coming  into  contact  with 
any  combustible  material  while  being  used,  for  if  slightly  mois- 
tened, fire  is  likely  to  ensue  and  the  heat  evolved  is  intense. 

When  sodium  peroxide  is  dissolved  in  water,  the  heat  is 
absorbed  by  the  water  without  danger. 

Zinc  dust,  found  in  dye  works,  sherardizing  works  and 
laboratories,  if  moistened  or  acted  upon  by  acid  solutions,  may 
evolve  heat  so  rapidly  as  to  ignite  combustible  material  and  its 
presence  in  zinc  oxide  probably  accounts  for  some  fires,  reported 
as  due  to  zinc  oxide. 

Calcium  carbide  generates  acetylene  gas  if  moistened  and 
should  be  stored  and  used  according  to  regulations  given  in 
separately  published  pamphlet. 

Metallic  sodium  and  potassium,  found  in  wholesale  drug 
and  chemical  houses  and  laboratories,  oxidize  so  rapidly  that 
they  must  be  kept  immersed  in  a  petroleum  oil  such  as  kero- 
sene, and  the  bottles  containing  same  should  rest  in  an  outer 
receptacle  and  be  protected  against  breakage,  as  a  fire  may  ensue 
if  contents  are  moistened. 

3.     SULPHUR  AND   PHOSPHORUS 

Sulphur,  if  kept  from  contact  with  fire  or  certain  chemicals, 
is    comparatively  harmless.     It   ignites   at  the   rather  low  tem- 


FIELD     PRACTICE  87 

perature  of  480  degrees  Fahr.,  and  a  relatively  small  spark  may 
cause  ignition,  which  may  escape  detection  for  some  time. 

In  drug  rooms  of  dye  works  and  mills,  in  pharmaceutical 
works  and  all  plants  where  oxidizing  agents,  such  as  potassium 
or  sodium  chlorates  or  nitrates  are  kept  or  used,  great  care 
should  be  observed  that  these  substances  do  not  come  into  con- 
tact with  sulphur  (as  for  example,  by  allowing  spilled  material 
to  remain  upon  the  floor),  as  the  mixture  may  ignite  or  explode 
by  rolling  a  truck  over,  or  by  walking  upon  it. 

Yellow  phosphorus  is  not  commonly  met  with,  but  may  be 
found  in  wholesale  drug  and  chemical  houses  and  in  laboratories. 

It  is  kept  under  water  in  glass  bottles  which  should  be 
enclosed  in  tin  cases.  In  laboratories,  it  may  be  found  in 
apparatus  used  for  gas  analysis,  in  which  case  this  type  of 
enclosure  is  impossible.  It  should  be  remembered  that  this 
material  becomes  hazardous  if  the  water  is  allowed  to  freeze. 

Red  phosphorus  is  harmless  as  regards  friction,  is  not 
hazardous  unless  highly  heated  or  brought  into  contact  with 
flame  or  some  oxidizing  agent. 

4.     NITRATES  AND   CHLORATES 

Sodium  and  potassium  chlorates  and  nitrates,  while  not  in- 
flammable, are  a  serious  hazard.  When  heated,  they  evolve 
oxygen  and  increase  the  intensity  of  a  fire. 

Nitrates,  found  in  chemical  and  fertilizer  works,  should  be 
stored  in  non-combustible  bins,  such  as  brick  or  concrete.  As 
nitrates  absorb  moisture  from  the  air,  wooden  bins  containing 
this  material  finally  become  impregnated  with  the  salt,  are  con- 
sequently easily  ignited,  and  ensuing  combustion  is  intensely 
rapid. 

Nitrates  are  usually  shipped  in  burlap  bags,  which  should  be 
emptied  as  soon  as  received  and  the  bags  burned  or  thoroughly 
washed.  Partial  washing  and  drying  may  render  the  bags 
more  readily  combustible  than  those  unwashed. 

Sodium  and  potassium  chlorates  are  usually  packed  in  100 
pound  wooden  kegs,  either  as  crystals  or  powder.  These  sub- 
stances, when  used  in  chemical  works,  are  generally  well  cared 
for.       They   may   be   found   in   dye   and   print  works,    in   some 


88  FIELD     PRACTICE 

hosiery  mills,  and  in  pharmaceutical  works,  in  the  making  of 
tablets. 

Chlorates  in  contact  with  organic  matter,  some  dyes  and 
other  materials,  either  under  pressure  or  at  an  elevated  tempera- 
ture, are  liable  to  cause  explosion  or  fire,  and  wherever  they  are 
used  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  floors  clean  and  free  from 
spilled  or  waste  chlorates,  as  friction  may  cause  ignition. 

Although  medicinal  tablets  of  pure  potassium  chlorate  are 
harmless,  tablets  containing  sugar,  tannic  acid  and  various 
medicinal  components  with  the  chlorates,  are  liable  to  explode 
while  in  the  tablet  machine  and  are  hazardous. 

Chlorates,  if  used  in  any  considerable  quantity,  should  be 
stored  outside  and  brought  in  as  needed. 

5.     PICRIC    ACID 

Picric  acid  and  sodium  and  potassium  picrates  may  be  found 
in  dye  rooms  of  silk  mills  and  in  leather  finishing  plants,  making 
colored  leather. 

Picric  acid,  a  yellow  crystalline  powder,  although  a  tri-nitro 
compound,  if  heated  or  ignited  usually  burns  without  explosion. 
If,  however,  it  is  heated  in  contact  with  metallic  oxides  or  even 
lime,  explosion  will  occur,  and  the  shock  occasioned  thereby  is 
likely  to  explode  any  quantity  of  picric  acid  nearby.  In  contact 
with  oxidizing  agents,  such  as  potassium  chlorate,  it  will  explode 
by  percussion.  In  using  this  substance  it  should  be  remembered 
that  while  in  a  dry  state  its  mixture  with  other  substances  may 
be  dangerous. 

Sodium  and  ammonium  picrates  are  explosive  if  heated 
and  potassium  picrate  explodes  by  either  heat  or  percussion. 

These  salts  are  easily  made  by  mixing  solutions  of  picric 
acid  with  the  alkaline  carbonates,  and  may  be  made  at  the  works 
where  used.  In  such  cases  if  the  product  is  used  in  dilute  solu- 
tions, instead  of  being  dried,  the  hazard  will  be  slight. 

6.  NITRO-CELLULOSE  OR  SOLURLE  GUN-COTTON 

Soluble  nitro-cotton  may  be  found  in  pharmaceutical 
works,  for  making  collodion,  in  artificial  leather  plants,  for 
coating    cotton    cloth,    in    those    metal    working    plants    where 


FIELD     PRACTICE  89 

lacquer  is  made  on  the  premises,  and  in  fuse  and  cut-out  plants 
for  indicators  on  cartridge  fuses. 

In  some  plants  it  is  received  dissolved  in  a  solvent,  in 
which  case  the  compound  is  no  more  hazardous  than  the  solvent. 
In  others,  it  comes  dry  packed  in  paper  bags  or  cartons.  The 
dry  nitro-cotton  found  in  trade  is  often  liable  to  spontaneous 
decomposition  and  should  be  stored  outside,  brought  in  as 
needed  and  at  once  put  into  solution. 

Dry  nitro-cotton  is  also  found  in  photo-engraving  and  pub- 
lishing plants,  where  half-tone  work  is  done,  being  used  for  wet 
plate  photography,  when  dissolved  in  ether.  Only  a  minimum 
quantity  should  be  kept  inside. 

Only  chemicals  of  recognized  hazards  have  been  considered.  It  would  be 
impracticable  to  consider,  in  this  manual,  all  possible,  though  perhaps  remote 
chemical  hazards,  —  as  for  example,  the  almost  innumerable  dyes  now  on  the 
market  and  being  increased  each  year.  Some  contain  nitrogen  and  oxygen  and 
if  mixed  with  certain  chemicals  in  a  dry  condition  would  be  hazardous.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  of  use  they  are  safe. 

7.     EXPERIMENTAL   WORK 

Many  explosives  are  easily  produced  from  single  sub- 
tances.  Iodine  and  strong  ammonia  form  nitrogen  iodide. 
This  compound  when  dry  is  easily  exploded  by  a  comparatively 
slight  rise  in  temperature  or  by  the  slightest  friction. 

Nitrogen  chloride,  one  of  the  most  dangerous  explosives, 
which  contact  even  with  turpentine,  grease,  alcohol,  etc.,  will 
explode,  is  produced  when  chlorine  gas  acts  upon  ammonium 
chloride  (sal  ammoniac)  or  when  an  electric  current  is  passed 
through  a  saturated  solution  of  this  salt. 

An  acid  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury  poured  into  alcohol 
forms  the  powerful  explosive,  mercury  fulminate,  used  for 
primers  and  detonators. 

Similarly  an  acid  solution  of  silver  nitrate  forms  silver  ful- 
minate, a  still  more  powerful  explosive. 

It  should  be  remembered  therefore  that  the  experimental 
mixing  of  two  or  more  chemicals  may  be  hazardous  and  that 
experiments  attempted  by  others  than  experienced  chemists 
should  be  with  minimum  quantities  and  in  a  location  where  the 
damage  would  be  minimized  should  fire  or  explosion  ensue. 


90 


FIELD    PRACTICE 


8.     INFLAMMABLE    VOLATILES 

The  relative  hazards  of  inflammable  volatiles  are  usually 
determined  by  their  flash  points.  The  flash  point  of  a  substance 
is  the  temperature  at  which  sufficient  vapor  is  generated  to  cause 
it  to  flash  or  explode,  without  igniting  the  liquid,  when  a  small 
flame  or  spark  is  brought  into  contact  therewith.  The  burning 
or  fire  point  is  somewhat  higher,  and  is  that  temperature  at 
which  the  vapor,  when  ignited,  will  continue  to  burn. 

The  following  list  comprises  the  more  common  inflammable 
volatiles  with  their  approximate  flash  points  and  the  density  of 
their  vapor  as  compared  with  air. 


Flash  Point. 

Vapor  Density 

Compared  with 

Air. 

(Air 

=  1.    Example. — 

Acetone, 

Density 

of  Acetone 

ao'—se-  F. 

Vapor 

twice  that  of  Air.) 
2 

Alcohol, 

61°" 

1.6 

Alcohol  (Wood) 

35'— bO'  " 

1.1 

Alcohol  (Denatured) 

55"" 

1.4 

Amyl  Acetate, 

65»-70»  " 

4.6 

Benzole 

14'" 

2.9  to  3. 

Columbian  Spirits, 

44°" 

1.1 

Carbon  Disulphide, 

—29°  " 

1.5 

Collodion, 

40°  or 

lower. 

Ether, 

—29°  F. 

2.6 

Gasoline, 

—4'"' 

2.9  to  3. 

Naphtha, 

0  » 

3.6  approx. 

Petroleum  Ether, 

0  " 

2.5 

Turpentine, 

96°  F, 

,  or  lower.  5. 

Lacquer, 

75°  F. 

to  OF 

.  or  below. 

The  term  Benzene  or  Benzine  has  been  omitted  from  above 
list  in  order  to  prevent  confusion  between  the  coal  tar  and 
petroleum  products.  The  term  benzene,  properly  speaking, 
refers  to  the  pure  coal  tar  product,  not  commonly  found. 
Benzole,  which  is  a  coal  tar  product,  contains  benzene  in  vary- 
ing amounts. 

The  word  benzene,  however,  is  commonly  applied  to  various 
pretroleum  products  whose  characteristics  would  be  covered 
under  the  terms  Naphtha  or  Gasoline. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  91 

9.     STORAGE    AND    HANDLING    OF    INFLAM- 
MABLE   VOLATILES  — GASOLINE,    ETC. 

In  handling  and  storing  these  dangerous  substances,  the  fol- 
lowing should  be  observed: — 

(a)  Gasoline,  naphtha  and  other  fluids  which  emit  an  inflammable  vapor  below 

the  temperature  of  100  degrees  Fahr.  should  be  stored  outside  all  build- 
ings in  steel  tanks  buried  underground,  or  otherwise  isolated,  in  accord- 
ance with  standard  regulations, 

(b)  In   printing   and   similar  establishments  any  of  the  volatile   fluids   herein 

described  maybe  used  in  an  approved  safety  can  or  cans  with  combined 
capacity  not  exceeding  five  (5)  gallons.  When  not  in  actual  use  they 
should  be  kept  outside  of  building  on  a  metal  shelf  securely  fastened  to 
the  wall  but  not  directly  in  front  of  a  window;  the  shelf  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  guard  rail  so  that  the  can  cannot  be  readily  dislodged  by 
accident.* 

(c)  The  use  of  fire  escapes  for  storage  of  inflammable  fluids  or  other  materials 

is  mischievous,  and  in  many  states  is  prohibited  by  law. 
*NoTE. — A  box  of  sheet  iron  or  other  incombustible  material  is  recom- 
mended as  a  protection  against  weather,  and  a  convenient  method  of 
putting  the  supply  under  lock  and  key;  the  box  will  also  fulfill  the 
requirement  for  a  guard.  Small  openings  to  be  provided  near  top  and 
bottom  of  box  for  ventilation.     (Also  see  Dwelling  House  Hazards.") 

10.     PAINTS  AND   OILS  — PAINT    STOCK 

The  hazards  attending  a  paint  stock  room  are:  First,  spon- 
taneous ignition,  due  to  carelessness  in  not  removing  and 
destroying  all  inflammable  material,  such  as  rags,  waste,  saw- 
dust, etc.,  which  have  become  impregnated  with  paint  or  oil. 
Second,  danger  of  vapor  ignition  if  inflammable  volatiles  are 
present  or  used  as  solvents  in  processes  of  manufacture. 

All  paints  and  paint  oils  should  be  considered  hazardous  as 
regards  spontaneous  ignition,  if  fibrous  combustible  material  be 
impregnated  with  them. 

The  flash  point  of  turpentine  is  above  80  degrees  Fahr.,  and 
paints  mixed  with  linseed  oil  and  turpentine  are  safe,  as  regards 
flash  ignition,  at  room  temperature. 

Various  turpentine  substitutes  have  flash  points  from  32 
degrees  Fahr.  up.  Paint  in  which  a  low  flash  point  compound  is 
used  is  a  hazard  if  flame  or  an  open  light  be  brought  near  the 
containing  vessel  or  a  freshly  painted  surface.  Many  ready 
mixed  paints,  especially  of  cheaper  grades,  have  a  low  flash 
point. 


92  FIELD    PRACTICE 

Varnishes  are  of  two  kinds,  so-called  turpentine  varnishes 
and  alcohol  or  spirit  varnishes. 

All  spirit  varnishes  present  a  flash  hazard,  and  so  do  many 
of  the  so-called  turpentine  varnishes,  owing  to  the  inflammable 
solvents  used. 

11.    LACQUERS 

Lacquers  are  of  two  kinds,  alcohol  shellac  lacquers,  having  a 
flash  point  above  that  of  the  alcohol  or  other  solvent  in  them,  and 
the  amyl  acetate  lacquers,  consisting  of  soluble  nitro-cotton, 
dissolved  in  amyl  acetate  (so-called  banana  oil)  and  other 
solvents.  Some  of  these  lacquers  may  contain  50  per  cent  of 
low  flash  point  solvent,  the  odor  of  which  is  completely  masked 
by  the  amyl  acetate. 

All  lacquers,  unless  known  to  have  a  high  flash  point,  should 
be  considered  hazardous,  and  only  a  minimum  quantity  allowed 
outside  the  stock  room  or  vault. 

12.    PAINT   AND    OIL    STOCK  ROOM 
PRECAUTIONS 

(a)  A  well  ventilated  fireproof  vault,  if  possible,  should  be 
provided  for  paint  storage,  and  where  this  is  not  feasible,  the 
room  used  for  this  purpose  should  have  a  concrete  floor  and  be 
well  ventilated  both  at  the  floor  level  and  overhead. 

(b)  Oils,  thinners  and  solvents  should  always  be  kept  in 
metal  tanks  or  cans,  which  preferably  will  not  permit  of  gravity 
feed. 

(c)  Metal  drip  pans  should  be  placed  under  all  faucets  and 
be  frequently  and  systematically  cleaned. 

(d)  When  an  absorbent  is  necessary,  sand  should  be  used  and 
immediately  disposed  of.     Never  use  sawdust. 

(e)  All  benches  should  have  metal  or  metal  covered  tops 
and  these  should  be  kept  thoroughly  cleaned. 

(f)  Paint  and  oil  drippings  should  be  removed  daily. 

(g)  Employees'  clothing  should  be  kept  in  well  ventilated 
metal  lockers,  located  elsewhere  than  in  stock  room. 

(h)  No  open  lights  nor  portable  oil  lamps  should  be  used. 
Rules  of  the  National  Electrical  Code  covering  the  installation 
of  electric  lights  where  inflammable  vapors  are  present  should 
be  strictly  adhered  to. 

(i)  Dry  lampblack  of  any  kind  should  be  kept  in  metal  cans 
or  barrels  provided  with  metal  covers. 


V 

SPONTANEOUS  IGNITION  AND  DUST  EXPLOSIONS 

1.  Spontaneous  Ignition. 

2.  Dust  Explosions. 

3.  Goal  Dust. 

4.  Other  £!xplosive  Dusts. 

5.  Metallic  PoM^ders. 

6.  Smoke  Explosions. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  95 

1.     SPONTANEOUS    IGNITION. 

The  phenomenon  of  spontaneous  ignition  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  exhaustive  study  for  many  years,  and  is  still  one  of 
exceeding  interest  from  the  frequency  with  which  it  occurs,  and 
from  the  fact  that  there  is  apparently  so  little  general  knowledge 
of  the  conditions  favorable  to  its  occurrence.  If  the  origin  of 
fire  is  not  clearly  apparent,  the  cause  is  usually  assigned  to 
spontaneous  combustion,  without  any  particular  effort  being  made 
to  ascertain  if  this  assumption  is  correct,  or  it  is  said  to  be 
unknown,  while  full  knowledge  of  the  conditions  existing  prior 
to  the  occurrence  would  show  that  very  simple  precautions 
would  probably  have  removed  the  danger. 

In  the  more  hazardous  processes  of  manufacture,  conducted 
by  experts,  the  dangers  are  recognized  and  safeguarded,  but  the 
unskilled,  careless  and  indifferent  are  responsible  for  enormous 
losses  that  can,  in  great  measure,  be  easily  prevented  by  under- 
standing a  few  simple  principles. 

Therefore,  it  is  not  the  intention  to  cover  all  possible  chem- 
ical combinations  that  will  produce  fire  experimentally;  the 
manufacturing  works  chemist  being  aware  of  the  peculiar  qual- 
ities of  the  substances  in  hand  will  naturally  exercise  care  in 
restricting  dangerous  chemicals  to  small  quantities,  and  his 
experiments  are  usually  conducted  in  such  a  manner  that  acci- 
dental fire  in  the  laboratory  can  do  no  serious  damage.  It  is 
rather  the  intention  to  enumerate  in  a  general  way  those  combina- 
tions of  substances  more  commonly  found  in  vapious  industries. 

Spontaneous  ignition  of  vegetable,  animal  and  metallic  sub- 
stances may  be  defined  as  follows  :— 

"Ignition  by  the  internal  development  of  heat  without  the 
action  of  an  external  agent." 

The  action  is  as  follows:  Porous  substances  absorb  air, 
oxidation  raises  the  temperature,  which  in  turn  accelerates  the 
oxidation  with  increasing  rapidity  until  fire  ensues.  The  low 
conducting  power  of  porous  substances  greatly  facilitates  com- 
bustion, by  preventing  the  dissipation  of  the  heat  generated. 

"Oxidation  always  produces  heat,  but  most  frequently  in 
such  small  quantities  that  it  is  imperceptible.  Nevertheless, 
however  slight  the   heat  evolved  in  the  oxidation  of  a  substance 


96  FIELD     PRACTICE 

may  be,  if  confined  it  will  usually  in  time  raise  the  temperature 
of  the  substance  undergoing  oxidation  to  the  point  of  ignition, 
resulting  in  fire.  Chemically,  therefore,  a  fire  may  be  described 
as  oxidation  at  a  temperature  at  or  above  the  point  of  ignition 
of  the  oxidized  substance;  also  as  a  phenomenon,  due  to  com- 
bustion or  oxidation  of  a  substance,  evolving  heat  and  light." 

Moisture  is  a  factor  in  nearly  every  known  case  of  sponta- 
neous ignition. 

The  constituents  of  organic  bodies  are  few  in  number: 
carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen  form  all  the  combina- 
tions peculiar  to  organic  substances.  In  addition  to  these,  how- 
ever, sulphur,  phosphorus  and  iron  sometimes  occur  in  small 
quantities  in  organic  products.  Carbon  is  always  found  in 
organic  bodies,  and  is  the  only  constant  element. 

Oxygen  is  the  most  widely  diffused  and  important  of  the 
elements;  it  forms  over  one  fifth  of  the  atmosphere;  eight 
ninths  of  all  water,  and  probably  one  third  of  the  earth's  crust. 
It  has  also  the  widest  range  of  affinity  of  known  substances, 
this  action  of  combining  being  known  as  oxidation,  and  by  its 
immediate  agency  combustion  and  life  are  alone  sustained. 
Oxygen  is  the  principal  supporter  of  combustion,  and  all  ordinary 
combustion  is  the  combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with  the 
burning  substance. 

Wood  subjected  to  direct  contact  with  fire  is  quickly  con- 
sumed, its  carbon  and  hydrogen  combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  forming  carbonic  acid  gas,  water,  and  unconsumed  gases  which 
pass  off  in  smoke,  and  there  remains  but  a  small  quantity  of  ash. 
Wood  exposed  to  moisture  in  the  presence  of  air  decays  or  "dry 
rots,"  which  is  exactly  the  same  process  except  that  the  com- 
bustion is  much  slower;  and  a  log  of  wood  may  require  many 
years  for  complete  consumption.  On  the  other  hand,  wood  has 
been  preserved   for  many  centuries  in  the  dry  climate  of   Egypt. 

The  amount  of  heat  generated  is  precisely  the  same  in  slow 
as  in  rapid  combustion  of  equal  quantities  of  material,  but  in 
slow  combustion  it  is  unnoticeable. 

Another  form  of  slow  combustion  is  the  rusting  of  metals, 
principally  iron,  which  in  the  form  of  fine  borings,  filings  and 
turnings  exposed  to  the  elements  in  large  quantities  will  cause  a 
decided  rise  in  temperature  through  oxidation. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  97 

Another  example  of  slow  combustion,  for  the  purpose  of 
illustration,  is  that  of  respiration,  the  fuel  being  the  non- 
nitrogenized  substances,  as  starch  and  sugar,  consumed  as  part 
of  the  sustenance  of  animals,  the  amount  of  heat  produced  being 
the  same  as  would  be  set  free  by  burning.  Therefore  ordinary 
combustion,  decay  and  respiration  are  chemical  processes, 
ditifering  only  in  the  rapidity  and  completeness  with  which  they 
occur,  and  the  products  of  combustion,  decay  and  respiration 
are  chiefly  carbonic  acid  gas,  water  and  ammonia. 

Various  substances  have  an  affinity  for  oxygen  to  a  greater 
or  smaller  degree,  and  the  chemical  action  is  therefore  more 
rapid  in  some  mixtures  than  in  others. 

!No  -vegetable  oil  -^vill  cause  spontaneons  ignition  unless  it  has 
the  property  of  dryinil  by-  reason  of  absorbing  oxygen,  and  no  animal 
oil  ^vill  cause  spontaneous  ignition  unless  it  has  the  property  of 
becoming  rancid.  The  danger  of  causing  fire  is  directly  proportionate 
to  the  degree  that  an  oil  may  have  either  the  one  or  the  other  of  these 
properties. 

Mineral  oils  in  their  liquid  state  have  no  affinity  for  oxygen,  and  are  there- 
fore less  hazardous  than  veg-etable  oils,  but  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that 
**  Oiled  everything  is  dangerous,**  and  that  moisture  promotes  spon- 
taneous ignition. 

1 .  PRECAUTIONS  TO  BE  OBSERVED. 

It  is  obvious  that  prevention  of  fire  among  many  substances, 
some  of  which  are  listed  below,  requires  constant  and  careful 
supervision  on  the  part  of  those  in  authority,  and  by  inspectors. 

(a)  As  to  their  storage  and  use. 

(b)  To   safeguard  the  storage  of  ra^v  materials  that  in  combination 

>v^ith  others  •will  cause  chemical  action. 

(c)  To  exercise  the  utmost  care  in  giving  proper  attention  to  partly 

finished  and  unfinished  stocks,  hazardous  in  themselves,  as 
their  values  increase  in  proportion  as  the  products  approach 
completion,  >v^ith  corresponding  increase  in  losses  that  may 
occur  through  damage  by  fire  and  M^ater. 

2.  SUBSTANCES  SUBJECT  THERETO. 

(Items  marked  with  asterisk  (*)  if  combined  with  mineral  oil  may  not  ignite 
spontaneously,  but  are  rendered  more  inflammable.) 

Among  the  many  substances  subject  to  spontaneous  ignition, 
the  following  will  be  more  commonly  found  in  general  manu- 
facturing and  storage  properties. 


98  FIELD    PRACTICE 

Agricultural  products,  such  as  hay,  straw,  clover  (damp,  tightly  packed  and 

unventilated). 
Aniline  black  (oxidizing  processes). 
Artificial  manures,  fertilizers  (damp  and  oily). 
Barley  (damp,  heats  and  chars). 
*Bone  black  (with  oils  or  fats,  moisture). 
Blacking  (with  rags,  fibres,  etc.). 
Briquettes  (coal,  with  organic  material  as  a  binder). 

Bituminous  coal — in  large  piles,  due  to  the  presence  of  sulphur  (pyrites),  mois- 
ture and  lack  of  sufficient  ventilation.     Many  cargoes  of  coal  have  been 
destroyed  from  these  causes. 
Broom  corn  (tightly  packed). 
Buffing  wheels   (oily,  with   moisture   and   polishing   materials,  refuse   from 

wheels). 
Carbides  (damp  or  wet). 
♦Carbon  black  (with  oil,  moisture). 
Card  strippings  (in  textile  mills,  excepting  cotton  mills). 
Cat-tail  rushes  (damp,  oily). 

Cellulose — woody  fibre,  in  insoluble  part  of  vegetable  products,  cotton,  paper, 
etc.    (oily,    with    moisture),  identical    in    composition    with    starch    and 
dextrin. 
Charcoal  (with  moisture) — it  has  the  property  of  absorbing  gases  to  a  most 
remarkable  degree  at  common  temperatures,   this   is   illustrated  by   its 
absorption   of   odors,  and   by   its  use   as   a  filtering   medium.     Recently- 
heated   charcoal  will  soon  take   up  many  times  its   own  volume  of   air. 
Steam  heat  drives  out  the  moisture  and  resinous  substances  from  wood 
which  is  then   left  in   condition  to  absorb  oxygen.    Any  steam  pipe,  no 
matter  how  low  the  pressure  of  steam,  will  in  time  char  wood,  and  char- 
coal produced  at  a  low  temperature  will  have  a  low  ignition  point.    The 
temperature  of  steam  is  very  high  at  low  pressure,  viz. :  15  lbs.^250°  F.; 
50  lbs .=298"  F.;  and  100  lbs.=338''  F.,  therefore  carbonization  taks  place 
where  least  expected.    When  cooled,  charred  wood  will   absorb  oxygen 
more    readily    than    if    kept    heated    continuously.    The    N.    F.    P.    A, 
Quarterly  of  January,  1911,  gives  fifty  well   authenticated   cases   of   fire 
from  the  charring   of  wood   and   other   substances.      Even    the    fireless 
cooker  has  been  responsible  for  fires  caused  by  continued  heating  of  the 
packing    material,    sawdust,  excelsior,   hay,  etc.,   and   the   presence    of 
moisture   and   grease   from   cooking.      Powdered   charcoal   is   especially 
susceptible  to  spontaneous  ignition  with  moisture,  vegetable  oils,  etc. 
Chrome  tanned  leather  buffings. 
*Clothing,  overalls,  aprons — (oily). 
Cloths  (polishing). 
Clover — see  hay. 
Coal — see  Bituminous. 
*Cocoa  fibre  (with  oil  and  moisture). 
Colophony  (resin,  if  powdered). 
Colors — dry  (some,  with  moisture  or  oils). 
Cordage  oil  on  hemp — rope  and  twine  stock. 
Cork  dust,  ground  cork  with  oil,  ground  cork  in  bags. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  99 

Cork  carpet— see  linoleum. 

Corn  from  distilleries — (spent). 
♦Cotton,  cotton  waste  (oily). 

Cotton  seed,  hulls,  press  cloths. 
♦Cotton  linters  (oily). 

Desiccating  oils  (drying). 
♦Dust,  wood,  cork,  buffing — (with  vegetable  oils,  organic  dyes,  acids). 

Dry  colors  (some,  with  moisture  and  oils). 

Dryers,  lacquers  (with  fibrous  material). 

Dyed  piece  goods  (especially  blacks,  cottons,  silks,  mixed  yarns,  tightly 
rolled  or  packed). 

Dye  woods  (chipped  or  ground). 

Essential  oils  (with  fibrous  material). 

Fertilizers  (artificial,  moist). 
♦Fibrous  materials  (with  oils,  acids). 

Fibres  in  bales — various. 

Fish  scrap  (with  moisture). 

Flax,  flax  seed  meal  (with  moisture). 

Fleshings — refuse  from  beam  houses,  tanneries. 

Floor  oiling  and  polishing  rags. 

Garbage  tankage  (with  moisture  and  grease). 

Grain — green  or  improperly  dried  (with  pressure,  oil  from  bearings). 

Grass — (tightly  packed  without  ventilation). 

'•  Grey  Cloth,"  in  calico  print  works  (fermentation  of  sizing  materials). 

Hay — (with  moisture  and  improperly  ventilated). 

Hemp,  in  bales,  hemp  combings  (moisture). 

Hops  (packed  damp) . 

Inky  cloths  used  in  wiping  rollers,  engraved  plates,  etc.,  in  printing  and  lith- 
ographing establishments. 

Iron  filings,  borings  and  turnings. (with  oil  and  moisture.) 

Jute. 

Kapok — fibre  used  in  pillows,  also  in  life  preservers  owing  to  its  buoyancy. 

Lacquers  (with  rags  and  waste). 
♦Lampblack  (with  fats,  oils,  sulphur,  moisture). 

Lard  oil  (saponifying). 

Leather  scrapings  from  cutting  boards. 

Leather  shavings  used  in  tumbling  barrels. 

Leatherboard  scrap. 

Lime — (with  water,  slacking  quicklime). 

Linoleum — in  drying  and  storage.  It  is  usually  necessary  to  provide  arti- 
ficial heat  in  drying  the  products  of  oil  cloth  and  linoleum  factories,  but 
occasionally  the  oxidation  of  the  material  is  so  rapid  that  no  heat  is 
required,  particularly  so  with  cork  carpet  which  is  a  form  of  floor  cover- 
ing similar  to  linoleum  but  heavier  and  coarser  in  its  general  makeup. 
These  products  are  suspended  in  close  vertical  folds  or  festoons  in  high 
buildings  as  they  are  run  direct  from  the  calendering  rolls,  which  dis- 
tribute the  cork  and  oxidized  oil  mixtures  upon  the  burlap  backings. 
Small  particles  of  the  coating  mixtures  are  disengaged  from  the  spongy 
mass  and  lodge  in  the  lower  folds  of  the  material,  where  heat  is  some- 


100 


FIELD    PRACTICE 


times  generated  so  rapidly  that  the  employees  are  required  to  examine 
the  lower  folds  every  few  minutes  and  sweep  out  all  loose  material  found 
therein.  The  folds  or  vertical  pieces  of  material  coming  in  contact  will 
also  heat  sufficiently  to  ignite. 

Linseed   oil   (with  lampblack,  cotton,  cotton  waste,  rags,  fibrous  materials, 
sawdust,  etc.) 

Linseed  oil  oxidized  on  cheese  cloth. 

Lithographs  in  large  piles. 

Malt — spent,  imperfectly  dried,  malt  culms. 

Metallic  powders — bronze,  aluminum,  magnesium,  zinc  (with  moisture). 

Nitre  (saltpetre)  bags,  washed  and  dried. 

Nitro-cellulose  compounds. 

Nitro  and  sulphur  compounds. 

Oils,  dryers  (with  fibrous  material). 

Oil  cake  meal. 

Oil  cloth,  floor  and  table,  in  piles. 

Oiled  clothing,  cuttings  from. 

Oily  rags,  waste,  polishing  cloths,  dropped  in  barrels  of  lampblack,  sawdust, 
dry  colors,  etc. 

Painted  cloth,  canvas,  curtains  (oil  paints). 

Paper  mill  stock,  oily  rags,  rope,  bagging,  straw. 

Powdered  charcoal  (with  oil,  moisture). 

Press  cloths  (with  Fuller's  earth). 

Pyrites — sulphide  of  iron. 

Pyroxylin  plastics— nitro-cellulose  products. 

Red  oil — (oleic  acid,  saponified  for  use  on  wool  stock). 

Resins  (powdered). 

Rosin  oil  (with  carbon  black,  etc.). 

Rubbing  rags  (oily). 

Saltpetre  (nitre)  bags. 
♦Sawdust  (with  vegetable  oils,  organic  dyes,  acids,  as  an  absorbent  of  oils, 
drippings,  etc.,  used  in  cuspidors). 

Silks,  black-dyed,  weighted  or  loaded,  tightly  rolled  or  packed. 

Sodium  peroxide,  with  water  and  fibrous  substances. 

Spanish  black  foily  with  moisture). 

Steampipes — see  charcoal. 

Straw — tightly  packed,  without  ventilation. 

Sulphur — Black-dyed  yarns,  etc.  (with  moisture). 

Sulphur  (with  chlorates,  lampblack,  charcoal). 

Superphosphates. 

Tan  (ground  bark,  with  moisture). 

Tankage,  garbage. 

Tobacco  leaves,  imperfectly  "  ordered  "  or  dried. 
*Tow  (oily  with  moisture). 
♦Waste  (oily,  unclean) . 

Wool,  "  green,"  freshly  sheared  (baled  with  foreign  material,  moisture). 
♦Zinc,  white  (with  oil). 


FIELD    PRACTICtt  101 


2.     DUST  EXPLOSIONS 


It  is  not  the  purpose  here  to  enlarge  upbn  *th.^  ciange»-F.  of  v-ell 
known  high  explosives  such  as  nitro-compounds,  fulminates,  etc.^ 
but  to  call  attention  to  the  many  apparently  simple  and  harm- 
less substances  in  which  danger  is  hidden  until  some  entirely 
unexpected  circumstance  may  cause  a  succession  of  events 
resulting  in  disaster. 

Numerous  organic  substpnces,  made  up  chiefly  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  such  as  alfalfa,  bran,  celluloid, 
chaff,  charcoal,  coal,  cork,  cottonj'dextrin,  feather,  flock,  flour, 
grain,  lampblack,  leather,  lycopodium,  malt,  naphthalene, 
paper,  resins,  starch,  sugar,  sulphur,  tan,  tow,  wood  or  wool 
dust;  or  in  fact  any  kind  of  combustible  dust  will  explode  with 
violence  under  favorable  conditions,  when  mixed  with  the  proper 
proportion  of  air  and  ignited  by  a  flame  or  spark. 

"The  chief  reason  for  this  ready  inflammability  of  dust  is  the  occlusion  of 
atmospheric  air  or  other  gases,  by  the  minute  particles  of  dust,  which  act  like  an 
absorbent  sponge.  Laden  with  gas  or  vapor  these  dust  particles  form  a  highly 
inflammable  material,  which  ignites  with  great  rapidity,  forming  an  atmosphere 
of  hydro-carbons  and  carbon  monoxide  that  furnishes  with  the  remaining  air  an 
explosive  mixture,  which  is  ignited  and  exploded  by  the  flame  of  the  burning  dust. 
Consequently,  dust  explosions  occur  in  two  stages,  the  ignition  of  the  dust 
particles,  and  the  explosion  of  the  resulting  and  ready  formed  gaseous  products. 
These  phases  follow  in  such  rapid  succession  as  to  form  practically  one  operation. 
Pure  metallic  dust  of  various  kinds  may  also  explode  without  the  presence  of  any 
gas  besides  air.  Both  organic  and  metallic  dusts  become  far  more  explosive  when 
mixed  with  substances  liberating  oxygen." 

Explosions  may  be  remote  from  open  lights  or  fires,  the 
presence  of  open  chutes,  stairways  and  elevator  shafts  allowing 
clouds  of  dust  to  fill  all  intervening  spaces,  with  the  result  of  a 
flash-back  to  the  source  of  dust  production. 

"  An  atmosphere  of  dust  may  be  in  contact  with  a  flame  without  explosion, 
because  the  precise  conditions  are  not  present;  but  the  moment  they  arrive  the 
flames  shoot  through  the  mass  with  ever-increasing  energy,  and  explosion 
follows." 

The  infrequency  of  explosions  with  the  different  substances 
or  dusts  mentioned  is  chiefly  due  to  the  absence  at  times  of  the 
conditions  necessary  to  produce  an  explosion.  The  inflammable 
substance  must  be  in  a  very  finely  divided  state ;  the  diffusion  of 
dust  must  be  complete  within  a  circumscribed  area;    there  must 


102  FIELD     PRACTICE 

be  an  dfts^i^ce  o'f  "excessive'  humiditj,  and  there  must  be  direct 
contact  between  the  explosive  mixture  and  a  flame,  or  a  spark 
ci' sufRc;i!ent;  Jrite-nsiiy,  to  ignite  t\\e  mass. 

,''  In' S^rTn'kli&red 'bui'ldings 'conditions  favorable  to  an  explo- 
sion may  be  partly  nullified  by  the  opportune  opening  of 
sprinklers,  which  furnish  an  excess  of  moisture  tending  to  cool 
the  atmosphere  of  dust  below  the  point  of  ignition. 

Dust  from  fibres  dyed  with  certain  chemicals  which  absorb 
oxygen  is  much  more  hazardous  than  that  from  the  raw  stock  ; 
thus  the  combustibility  of  a  fibre  increases  directly  with  the 
affinity  it  has  for  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

With  the  exception  of  coal,  flour  and  starch,  wood  dust  is 
probably  produced  in  larger  quantities  and  by  a  greater  number 
of  processes  than  any  other  organic  dust,  and  at  the  same  time 
it  is  handled  more  carelessly  than  any  other  dust.  The  necessity 
of  its  rapid  removal  to  avoid  congestion  around  machinery 
often  makes  its  safe  disposal  a  difficult  problem,  involving  large 
outlay  for  dust  collecting  systems  which  in  themselves  are  often 
responsible  for  fires  and  explosions  that  occur  through  friction 
of  neglected  and  improperly  lubricated  fan  bearings.  The 
breakdown  of  dust  collecting  machinery  has  been  the  indirect 
cause  of  explosions  with  loss  of  life,  resulting  from  efforts  to 
dispose  of  dust  and  shavings  by  direct  hand  firing  while  the 
collecting  system  was  inoperative.  Wood  dust  explosions  have 
been  caused  by  dislodging  masses  of  shavings  and  dust  from 
projections  in  the  walls  of  vaults,  and  the  clouds  of  dust  becom- 
ing ignited  by  open  lights  or  furnace  fires  nearby. 

The  dust  from  sandpapering  machines  being  naturally  very 
fine  and  dry,  and  as  it  is  produced  rapidly  in  large  quantities, 
must  necessarily  be  conducted  to  some  receptacle  by  a  blower 
system,  and  therein  lies  the  danger  of  thorough  diffusion  with 
an  abundance  of  air  extremely  favorable  to  rapid  combustion. 

The  proper  disposal  of  dust,  of  any  description,  is  direct 
from  the  machine  by  which  it  is  produced  through  well  con- 
structed smooth  metal  piping  or  conduits  and  exhaust  fan,  to  a 
ventilated  and  screened  centrifugal  dust  collector,  preferably 
above  the  roof  of  building,  and  thence  to  the  proper  receptacle, 
storage  vault  or  furnace  as  required  by  the  nature  of  the 
material. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  103 

3.     COAL   DUST 

The  frequency  with  which  disastrous  explosions  with  great 
loss  of  life  have  occurred  in  mines,  has  caused  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Mines  to  make  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  conditions 
which  lead  up  to  mine  explosions,  and  the  methods  of  prevent- 
ing them.  It  seeks  to  determine  what  explosives  can  be  used  with 
least  risk  in  mines  where  gas  or  inflammable  dust  may  be  found. 

In  mines,  stone  dust  is  stored  on  shelves  at  sides.  In  case  of  a  coal  dust 
explosion  this  stone  dust  is  disturbed  and  dilutes  the  inflammable  (coal)  dust. 
(Government  methods). 

In  the  ordinary  process  of  breaking  down  masses  of  bituminous 
coal,  large  quantities  of  dust  are  produced  and  this  is  often 
ignited  by  unsafe  lamps,  and  by  the  explosives  used  in  mining. 

Coal  dust  explosions  also  occur  in  the  coal  grinding  mills 
of  cement  plants,  where  the  dust  is  used  as  fuel  in  the  rotary 
kiln. 

4.     OTHER  EXPLOSIVE  DUSTS 

Grinding,  sifting  and  barreling  powdered  sugar  in  the 
presence  of  open  gas  lights  caused  an  explosion  in  a  Philadel- 
phia refinery  on  August  20,  1891.  A  large  number  of  empty 
barrels  lined  with  tissue  paper  were  standing  about,  and  the 
paper  was  ignited  in  nearly  all.  Forty-seven  sprinklers  were 
opened  by  the  intense  heat. 

Another  sugar  dust  explosion  occurred  in  a  Philadelphia  re- 
fined sugar  warehouse  on  February  27,  1914,  caused  by  worn 
bearings  in  a  grinding  mill,  which  allowed  the  mill  discs  to 
come  in  contact,  striking  fire.  Thirteen  sprinklers  were  opened 
on  this  occasion. 

The  March,  1914,  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadel- 
phia, cites  a  case  of  paper  dust  explosion  in  Lille,  France,  May, 
1913,  in  a  factory  where  the  edges  of  rolls  of  paper  were  being 
ground  smooth. 

In  modern  magazine  binderies  the  edges  of  the  books  are 
trimmed  by  circular  saws  or  knives,  resulting  in  an  immense 
amount  of  fine  paper  dust.  This  dust  is  often  chuted  to  the 
basement  waste  paper  vaults  and  under  favorable  conditions 
would  cause  an  explosion. 


104  FIELD     PRACTICE 

Dust  explosions  are  not  uncommon  in  grain  elevators, 
starch,  flour  and  cereal  mills. 

A  disastrous  grain  or  flour  dust  explosion  occurred  in  the 
Husted  Mills,  Buffalo,  on  June  24,  1913,  which  resulted  in  a  loss 
of  over  30  lives. 

Bark  and  buffing  mills  in  tanneries ;  dusters  and  rag  cutters 
in  paper  mills;  bolting  reels  in  starch  factories;  starch  shakers 
and  sifters  in  candy  factories;  malt  mills,  alfalfa  mills;  cork 
mills;  wheat  and  other  cereal  cleaning  machines,  buffing  and 
polishing  wheels,  etc.,  are  sources  of  plentiful  dust  production. 
However,  the  escape  of  flour  and  sugar  dust  is  a  waste  of  product 
and  these  substances  are  more  carefully  guarded  in  modern 
plants. 

Dust  from  the  manufacture  of  celluloid  articles  is  violently 
explosive,  and  should  be  deposited  under  water. 

GENERAL  FEATURES  TO  OBSERVE 

(a)  Note  the  general  condition  of  all  dust  producing  or  dust  agitat- 
ing machinery,  such  as  grinding  mills,  bolting  and  sifting  reels,  etc., 
and  enclosure  of  machinery.  Elimination  of  all  spark-producing 
apparatus  should  be  required. 

(b)  See  if  magnets  are  provided  in  feed  to  grinding  rolls. 

(c)  Note  the  method  of  dust  and  shavings  collection  and  disposal. 

(d)  Observe  the  construction  of  storage  bins  and  vaults,  vents  and 
out-offs. 

(e)  Note  the  distance  of  vault  doors  from  boiler  and  other  fires, 
open  lights,  etc. 

(f)  Inquire  as  to  use  of  matches  and  smoking  by  employees. 
Permit  no   lighting    system    other    than    electric    in    dust-producing 


(g)  Note  place  of  storage  of  po^vdered  substances  affected  by 
moisture. 

(h)  Inquire  as  to  knovrledge  of  employees  in  reference  to  dust 
and  chemical  explosion  hazards. 

(i)  Dust-producing  rooms  should  be  in  a  ^vell  cut-off  section,  or  in 
a  detached  building,  separate  from  other  processes  and  occupancies. 

5.     METALLIC  POWDERS 

1.    BRONZE. 

When  metals  or  their  alloys  are  reduced  to  impalpable 
powder  they  become  readily  ignitible.  When  packed  and  stored 
in  a  perfectly  dry  state   there    is  little  danger  in  such  materials. 


FIELD    TRACTICE  105 

but  when  exposed  in  a  loose  condition  to  the  action  of  air  and 
moisture  rapid  oxidation  proceeds,  and  the  gases  given  off  from 
these  metallic  powders  are  liable  to  explosion  in  the  presence 
of  carriers  of  oxygen. 

Aluminum,  copper,  magnesium,  zinc  and  various  alloys  of 
these  metals  are  more  commonly  found  in  the  form  of  bronze 
powders,  and  the  danger  of  explosion  is  practically  the  same 
with  powder  from  one  metal  or  from  two  or  three  metals  in 
combination. 

2.    FLASHLIGHT. 

Aluminum  and  magnesium  powders,  mixed  with  chlorate  of 
potash  and  other  carriers  of  oxygen  for  intensification,  ignite 
readily,  are  highly  explosive  and  under  certain  conditions  are 
extremely  hazardous. 

Six  explosions  of  flash  powders,  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facture, have  occurred  in  Philadelphia,  resulting  in  the  loss  of 
seven  lives. 

Observe  if  these  metallic  poM^ders  of  various  kinds  are 
kept  in  cool,  dry  places;  this  applies  as  >vell  to  both  place 
of  manufacture  and  place  of  storage. 


6.     SMOI^E  EXPLOSIONS 

Distinct  from,  yet  closely  allied  with,  explosions  of  inflam- 
mable dust,  are  explosions  caused  by  the  ignition  of  mixtures  of 
air  with  the  minute  particles  of  unconsumed  carbon  and  invisible 
gaseous  matter,  in  smoke  from  the  imperfect  combustion  of 
organic  substances.  These  "smoke  explosions"  frequently 
occur  in  burning  buildings  and  are  commonly  termed  "back 
drafts,"  or  "hot  air  explosions." 

All  fires  are  subject  to  "smoke  explosions,"  but  these,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  obviated  by  efforts  of  the  Inspector. 

The  many  instances  of  record  in  which  fires  have  occurred 
from  spontaneous  origin,  and  where  dust  explosions  have  caused 
serious  damage  to  buildings  and  subsequent  destruction  by  fire 
resulting  from  explosions,  would  require  too  much  space  for 
publication  herewith. 


VI 

CARE    AND    MAINTENANCE 


FIELD     PRACTICE  109 

GENERAL    CARE    AND    MAINTENANCE 

The  care  and  maintenance  of  a  plant,  or  the  housekeeping, 
is  a  feature  of  tire  protection  that  can  be  understood  hy  every- 
one connected  with  an  establishment,  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest,  and  it  is  considered  the  most  important  single  feature 
of  protection. 

It  therefore  deserves  most  careful  attention,  and  any 
Manager  who  does  not  develop  this  feature  to  the  utmost  is 
losing  a  fine  opportunity  to  improve  his  plant.  The  Inspector 
or  Engineer  examining  a  plant,  or  recommending  protection 
features,  should  not  overlook  this  means  of  protection,  but 
should  take  the  time  to  study  out  and  to  emphasize  to  the 
property  owner,  or  man  in  charge,  the  importance  of  such 
organization  of  his  workmen  as  will  produce  the  best  results. 

To  accomplish  this,  a  system  of  inspection  by  a  competent 
man  in  the  employ  of  the  property  owner  is  recommended.  The 
following  points  are  briefly  suggested  as  a  guide  for  the  laying 
out  of  such  a  service,  as  well  as  a  guide  to  any  inspector, 
whether  official  or  private. 

In  addition  to  the  special  points  brought  out  under  this  head- 
ing, it  is  of  course  assumed  that  the  preceding  and  following 
articles  making  up  this  manual  will  also  be  consulted  by  the 
Inspector. 

ESSENTIAL    POINTS    FOR    INSPECTOR    AND 
PROPERTY    OWNER 

A  system  of  daily  or  weekly  self-inspection  of  the  plant 
should  be  inaugurated,  and  reports  made  out  on  specially  pre- 
pared blanks  to  be  signed  by  the  Inspector  and  turned  in  to  the 
man  in  charge  of  the  plant  on  the  day  of  inspection. 

The  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction,  when  consulted,  will  always 
be  glad  to  advise  the  property  owners  as  to  the  form  of  report  blank  which  will 
best  suit  the  conditions. 

The  man  chosen  for  this  inspection  duty  should  be  of  good 
judgment,  and  preferably  a  man  of  some  knowledge  of  mechan- 
ical appliances.  His  first  duty  should  be  to  fully  inform  himself 
in  regard  to  all  fire  appliances  forming  the  protection  of  the 
plant,  and   second   he  should   notify   the  chief   of   the  plant   fire 


110  FIELD    PRACTICE 

department  or  other  official  under  whose  jurisdiction  it  comes 
whenever  anything  is  found  out  of  place  or  out  of  commission, 
in  addition  to  noting  the  fact  in  its  proper  place  on  the  printed 
report  blank. 

(a)  He  should  report  on  the  work  done  by  the  cleaning  force  whether  the  latter  is 

under  his  charge  or  not. 

(b)  He  should  indicate  in  his  report  any  rooms  or  sections  of  the  plant  which  are 

not  given  proper  attention  by  the  cleaning  force, 

(c)  He  should  see  that  all  rubbish  is  removed  daily,  and  that  all  sweepings  and 

other  refuse  are  taken  out  of  the  building  to  some  safe  place  by  the  cleaners 
before  they  leave  the  works. 

(d)  He  should  see  that  the  workmen  in  their  daily  operations  make  use  of  the 

metal  oily  waste  cans. 

(e)  He  should  see  that  all  ashes  are  properly  handled   and   removed  from  the 

building,  prohibiting  the  use  of  any  wooden  receptacles. 

(f )  He  should  make  note  of  and  report  on  any  hazardous  stock  such  as  chemicals, 

oils,  etc.,  which  are  not  being  handled  by  the  workmen  in  accordance  with 
the  rules  of  the  Company. 

(g)  He  should  report  any  instance  of  smoking  or  the  carrying  of  other  than 

♦'  safety"  matches,  which  comes  under  his  observation,  and  see  that  "No 
Smoking"  signs  are  in  place, 
(h)    He  should  see  that  inflammable  packing  material  is  carefully  handled  and 
properly  disposed  of,  that  there  may  be  no  surplus  exposed  after  the  factory 
is  closed. 

The  inspector  should  review  the  watchman's  records,  and 
occasionally  visit  the  plant  at  night  to  check  up  his  work.  The 
inspector  should  take  the  time  and  trouble  to  explain  to  the 
watchman  the  use  of  the  fire  apparatus  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
watchman  can  give  the  proper  alarms  and  start  in  motion  any 
of  the  pumps  or  other  fire  appliances  which  are  not  absolutely 
automatic.  The  watchman  should  be  encouraged  to  assist  the 
inspector  by  calling  to  the  inspector's  attention  any  conditions 
that  he  may  observe  during  his  rounds  that  would  be  of  interest 
to  the  inspector  in  his  work. 

(a)  The  inspector  should,  on  each  round,  examine  all  fire  pails  and  barrels,  re- 

porting any  that  are  not  full  or  contain  foul  water  or  are  in  danger  of 
freezing. 

(b)  Whenever  sand  pails  are  provided  as  required  in  painting  or  oiling  depart- 

ments, the  same  attention  as  to  cleanliness  should  be  given,  and  he  should 
also  see  that  the  proper  scoops  are  in  place  for  use  in  distributing  sand, 

(c)  The  chemical  extinguishers  should  be  checked  up  on  each  round  to  see  that 

they  are  in  place.  They  should  be  discharged,  cleaned  and  recharged  at 
least  once  every  twelve  months,  and  there  should  be  a  tag  attached  to  each 
extinguisher  bearing  the  date  when  last  recharged  and  stating  by  whom. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  111 

(d)  The  inspector  should  see  that  all  fire  doors,  shutters  or  other  devices  for 

protecting-  openings  in  walls  or  floors  are  in  good  repair  and  in  good 
working  order.  These  should  be  tested  at  least  weekly  and  all  tracks  kept 
clean  and  moving  parts  oiled  and  in  easy  working  order  at  all  times. 

(e)  He  should  examine  the   automatic  sprinkler  system,  outside  yard  hydrant 

system,  inside  standpipe  system,  outside  hose  houses,  hydrants,  post 
indicator  valves,  ladders,  lanterns,  etc.,  to  see  that  everything  is  in 
place,  in  good  working  order  and  ready  for  instant  use.  (For  example, 
lanterns  without  wicks,  without  oil  or  without  means  for  making  a  light 
would  be  useless.) 

The  inspector  should  accompany  when  possible  the  official 
inspectors  when  making  their  regular  observations  and  tests. 

He  should  require  that  the  visiting  inspector  explain  in  detail 
just  what  is  recommended  as  the  best  practices  by  experts.  He 
should  co-operate  with  the  insurance  representatives  and  should 
understand  that  perfect  records  at  all  times  do  not  indicate  the 
best  service  by  the  plant  inspector,  for  the  reason  that  no  plant 
can  be  operated  year  in  and  year  out  without  some  of  the  ideal 
conditions  falling  more  or  less  below  standard,  and  the  failure 
on  the  part  of  the  plant  inspector  to  report  these  conditions 
when  they  occur  tends  to  discredit  the  value  of  his  reports  to  an 
intelligent  fire  protection  engineer  and  to  the  owner  of  the 
property. 

The  inspector  and  the  manager  should  both  interest 
the  department  heads  in  general  orderliness  and  cleanli- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  help  and  should  make  each  depart- 
ment superintendent  responsible  for  his  room  or  section. 
If  a  plant  inspector  is  not  employed,  the  manager  or  man  in  charge  should 
make  use  of  these  suggestions  in  making  his  own  personal  inspections,  but  a  sys- 
tematic inspection  by  a  responsible  man  is  essential  to  effective  care  and 
maintenance. 

It  is  further  recommended  that  the  president,  general 
manager,  or  some  other  high  official  make  an  occasional 
inspection  of  the  premises  or  plant  from  a  fire  protection 
standpoint,  that  the  importance  of  fire  protection  and 
maintenance  may  be  impressed  upon  the  help. 

1  .    WASTE  CANS. 

Greasy  and  oily  waste  is  subject  to  spontaneous  ignition. 
The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  its  disposition.  Unless  it 
is  immediately  burned  after  using,  all  waste  should  be  deposited 


112  FIELD    PRACTICE 

in  standard  metal  waste  cans.  The  construction  of  the  waste  can 
is  of  vital  importance,  and  non-standard  cans  are  of  but  little 
value.     Observe  the  following: — 

(a)  Note  if  cans  are  of  approved  type  and  in  sound  condition,  if  lid  is  operative 

and  self-closing-,  legs  are  secure,  and  handles  are  in  place. 

(b)  Oily  waste  must  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  cans  over  night,  but  should  be 

burned  every  evening. 

(c)  See  that  there  is  an  ample  number  of  waste  cans  provided,  and  that  they  are 

conveniently  placed  for  use  of  employees. 

(d)  Should  it  be  the  practice  to  reclaim  oil  from  waste  and  use  waste  again,  see 

that  process  is  conducted  in  a  fireproof  room,  or  in  a  well  detached 
building. 

2.  SAFETY  VOLATILE  OIL  CANS. 

In  establishments  where  benzine,  gasoline,  naphtha  and  other 
inflammable  liquids  are  used  for  cleaning  or  spraying,  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  smallest  quantities  possible  are 
used,  and  that  the  same  are  handled  in  approved  safety  cans 
especially  designed  for  the  purpose. 

(a)  Ascertain  for  what  purpose  inflammable  liquids  may  be  used,  and  if  a  substi- 

tute not  so  hazardous  could  be  employed. 

(b)  Find  out  where  cans  are  stored  over  night,  when  they  are  filled,  and  where 

main  supply  of  oil  is  stored. 

(c)  Do  not  permit  cans  to  be  placed  in  rooms  having  open  lights  or  fires. 

(d)  Cans  should  range  in  size  from  one  pint  to  one  gallon,  should  be  substan- 

tially constructed,  w^ithout  leak,  and  must  have  proper  working  automatic 
valve  outlet.    They  should  be  of  standard  type. 

(e)  In  furniture  factories,  and  where  finishing  is  done,  benzine  or  naphtha  must 

not  be  used  by  workmen  for  washing  hands.  Crude  oil  or  kerosene  is  a 
good  substitute  to  remove  varnish  and  filler  from  the  hands  where  special 
preparations  are  not  provided. 

(f)  Inflammable  liquids  are  dangerous  regardless  of  the  manner  in  which  they 

are  used,  and  by  no  means  should  they  be  permitted  in  open  pans,  pails  or 
other  open  receptacles. 
{See  also  Chemicals,  Paints  and  Oils.) 

3.  ASH  CANS  AND  REFUSE  BARRELS  AND  RECEPTA- 

CLES. 
Extreme  care  should  be  given  the  storage  of  ashes,  cuttings, 
clippings,  rubbish  and  useless  material,  and  the  same  promptly 
removed  from  premises.  Many  fires  are  due  to  careless  handling 
and  storage  of  refuse  and  ashes.  Wooden  boxes  or  barrels 
should  never  be  used  for  temporary  disposition  of  these  materi- 
als. Municipal  laws  should  require  the  use  and  maintenance  of 
metal  receptacles. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  113 

(a)  Observe  if  receptacles  used  are  of  standard  type,  If  they  are  in  good  condition, 

provided  with  handles,  cover,  and  properly  flanged  at  bottom  with  at  least 
a  '^-inch  air  space  between  bottom  and  floor. 

(b)  Sec  that  an  ample  number  of  receptacles  is  provided,  that  they  are  not  over- 

loaded,  and  are  promptly  emptied.  General  removal  of  this  material  by 
the  municipality  should  be  urged.  It  should  never  be  stored  on  wooden 
floors. 

(c)  Do  not  permit  ashes  to  be  stacked  against  combustible  partitions,  or  lie  upon 

combustible  floors,  after  being  removed  from  boilers,  stoves  or  furnaces. 

4-.    METAL  LOCKERS. 

Substantially  constructed  and  properly  ventilated  metal 
lockers  for  employees'  clothes  should  be  a  requirement  of  every 
establishment.  Sanitary  measures  alone  demand  this.  The  old 
wood  closets,  lockers  and  enclosures  liable  to  be  used  as  a  catch- 
all for  discarded  and  greasy  garments  are  things  an  up-to-date 
employer  will  not  tolerate. 

(a)  Each  employee  should  have  the  exclusive  use  of  a  metal  locker,  and  should 

be  instructed  to  use  the  same,  to  keep  it  clean  and  free  from  dust  and  odd 
material. 

(b)  Lockers  should  preferably  rest  on  a  non-combustible  floor,  and  away  from 

partitions  other  than  brick  and  should  be  kept  in  rooms  designed  for  them. 

(c)  Employees  should  be  cautioned  not  to  place  wet  garments  on  steam  radiators 

or  registers  to  dry.  They  should  be  hung  up  so  as  to  admit  of  air 
circulation. 

(d)  Employees  should  be  instructed  not  to   leave  matches  in  clothes  while  in 

lockers.    The  use  of  safety  matches  should  be  required. 

(e)  Locker  room  should  have  direct  circulation  to  the  open  air. 

(f)  In  painting,  varnishing,  dipping  establishments,  etc.,  working  clothes  should 

preferably  be  kept  in  lockers  located  in  a  room  of  non-combustible  con- 
struction, properly  cut  off  by  a  standard  fire  door,  and  have  ventilation  to 
the  outside. 


/^v 


NO  SMOKING  PRECAUTIONS. 

The  custom  of  smoking  tobacco  in  various  forms  is  uni- 
versal among  men,  and  one  impossible  to  eliminate.  Many  fires 
owe  their  origin  to  smoking,  and  to  carelessness  in  the  use  of 
matches,  disposal  of  ashes  and  burning  tobacco. 

Frequently  in  industrial  plants  smoking  can  be  safely  per- 
mitted at  noon,  in  certain  quarters,  such  as  locker  rooms  (with  a 
man  on  guard),  boiler  rooms,  blacksmith  shops,  etc.  Men  will 
smoke,  and  if  they  have  a  time  and  place  to  do  so  they  can  be 
controlled. 


114  FIELD    PRACTICE 

^^Conspicuous  signs,  bearing  the  words  "No  Smoking," 
should  be  posted  where  smoking  is  hazardous.  An  employer, 
to  obtain  the  very  best  results  from  his  employees,  should 
absolutely  prohibit  smoking  during  working  hours.  t-^^C  penalty 
should  be  inflicted  for  violation  of  such  rules,  and  perhaps  a 
premium  given  the  abstainers. 

In  stores  and  mercantile  establishments  warning  by  means 
of  proper  signs  should  be  posted,  requesting  customers  not  to 
smoke  on  the  premises.  The  employees  should  be  instructed  to 
report  to  the  superintendent  or  foreman  any  customers  not  ob- 
serving this  warning.  Merchants  would  do  well  to  procure  the 
enactment  of  a  local  ordinance  which  would  prohibit  smoking 
in  mercantile  establishments. 

The  inspector  should  make  particular  note  of  the  smoking 
hazard,  and  should  persuade  employers  to  prepare  and  post 
signs  of  this  nature,  so  wording  them  as  to  appeal  to  employees, 
impressing  upon  them  the  fact  that  "smoking"  is  a  fire  hazard, 
and  that  carelessness  in  connection  therewith  may  destroy  their 
means  of  employment  and  income.  Substantial  and  conspicu- 
ously lettered  signs,  reading  something  as  follows,  are  recom- 
mended : — 


THIS   COMPANY   POSITIVELY   PROHIBITS 
SMOKING 

Why?  Should  this  plant  burn,  employees  as 
well  as  the  Company  would  be  the  losers.  Em- 
ployment here  would  cease. 


NO    SMOKING  I 

Should  you  see  anyone  smoking  on  these 
premises,  you  are  authorized  to  notify  him 
that  it  is  against  this  Company's  rules.  It  is  to 
your  interest  to  help  us  enforce  this  rule. 


FIELD     I'RACTICK  115 

6.    HOLIDAY  AND  OTHER  DISPLAYS  AND  SAFEGUARDS. 

The  use  of  Christmas  greens,  harvest  specimens,  autumn 
leaves,  dried  grasses,  etc.,  either  natural  or  artificial,  and  other 
highly  inflammable  materials,  such  as  scenery,  draperies  of 
cheese  cloth,  cotton  bunting,  cotton  to  represent  snow,  artificial 
flowers,  tissue  paper  festoons,  ornaments,  etc.,  are  decidedly 
objectionable  from  a  fire  hazard  standpoint;  particularly  so 
when  these  materials  are  used  in  conjunction  with  illuminated 
signs  and  other  lighting  effects  in  churches,  schools,  exhibition 
halls,  department  stores  and  other  mercantile  establishments. 
Such  displays  are  usually  temporary,  put  up  in  a  hasty  manner 
by  persons  with  no  thought  nor  understanding  of  possible  con- 
sequences;  and  in  crowded  stores  or  places  of  assemblage  the 
danger  of  panic  and  loss  of  life  in  the  event  of  fire  cannot  be 
overestimated. 

It  is  impossible  to  make  displays  of  this  character  per- 
fectly safe,  even  with  the  decorative  materials  *'  fire- 
proofed."  Artificial  flo-w^ers,  tissue  paper  ornaments, 
etc.,  extensively  used  for  such  purposes,  and  impregnated 
•with  various  chemical  substances,  can  be  purchased  at 
slight  additional  cost  above  that  of  ordinary  materials. 
While  the  decorations  so  treated  -u^ill  not  readily  inflame, 
they  w^ill  char  w^hen  brought  into  contact  >vith  open  lights, 
incandescent  lamp  bulbs,  gas  arcs,  etc.,  and  the  charred 
material  -when  falling  retains  sufficient  heat  to  ignite 
combustibles. 

(a)  Absolutely  prohibit  the  use  of  candles  for  illumination  of  Christmas  trees. 

(b)  Special  attention  is  necessary  to  the  general  scheme  of  decoration;  see  that 

decorative  materials  are  not  arranged  in  continuous  festoons  from  post  to 
post;  require  breaks  or  gaps  between  series  of  decorations  to  prevent 
rapid  spread  of  fire. 

(c)  See  that  all  decorative  effects  are  clear  of  gas  drops  or  chandeliers. 

(d)  Require  all  electric  wiring  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  National  Electrical 

Code.  Observe  the  particular  manner  in  which  all  wiring  is  arranged  in 
connection  with  illuminated  signs,  booths,  demonstrations  of  domestic 
appliances,  etc.  Pins  and  tacks  driven  through  lamp  cords  have  caused 
short  circuits,  resulting  in  serious  fires. 

(e)  Examine  all  motors,  shafting,  wiring,  etc.,  concealed  under  tables  and  benches, 

temporarily  used  in  so-called  industrial  exhibitions ;  such  machinery  is  fre- 
quently installed  without  due  regard  to  safety  of  operation  and  without 
proper  care  in  reference  to  lubrication,  disposition  of  wiping  rags,  etc. 


116  FIELD    PRACTICE 

(f)  Motion  picture  exhibits  are  to  be  found  in  most  fairs  or  bazaars,  and  the  wir- 

ing of  portable  outfits  is  subject  to  more  or  less  abrasion  of  insulation 
through  frequent  handling,  splices  are  often  loosely  made  and  not  properly 
taped, 

(g)  Demonstrations  of  cooking,  pop  corn  and  candy  making,  glass  blowing,  gas 

and  gasoline  engines,  lighting  systems,  or  any  exhibit  requiring  the  use 
of  matches  and  lire  should  receive  careful  inspection,  particularly  so  with 
reference  to  the  supply  and  use  of  oils  or  fuels,  and  the  arrangement  of 
exhaust  pipes. 

(h)  Arrange  all  gas  heated  apparatus  so  as  to  be  well  removed  from  walls  or  in- 
flammable material.  These  devices  should  rest  upon  an  all  metal  stand  or 
base,  and  be  directly  connected  up  with  gas  pipe.  No  rubber  nor  flexible 
tubing  should  be  permitted  unless  in  small  lengths,  well  guarded,  with 
cut-off  valve  at  metal  pipe  only. 

(i)  Discourage  the  use  of  light  screens,  draperies  and  curtains  on  small  platforms 
or  stages  lighted  by  oil  lamps,  open  gas  foot,  border  or  bunch  lights. 

(j)  See  that  all  aisles,  stairways,  passage  ways,  exits,  etc.,  are  free  of  obstruc- 
tions, such  as  chairs,  movable  counters  or  tables. 

(k)  Require  liberal  installation  of  water  pails,  chemical  extinguishers,  fire  hose, 
etc.,  also  NO  SMOKING  signs  in  prominent  places. 


vn 
CHIMNEYS    AND    FLUES 


FIELD     PRACTICE  119 

CHIMNEYS  AND   FLUES   IN   DWELLINGS 

Defective  flues  are  among  the  most  frequent  causes  of  fire. 
Fires  caused  by  defective  flues  are  preventable.  Everybody  ought 
to  learn,  remember  and  enforce  the  main  factors  contributing  to 
safe  flue  construction  which  are  designed  to  make  the  smoke, 
flame,  heat  and  gases  of  combustion  go  into  the  open  air  through 
the  top  of  the  chimney  rather  than  into  the  building  through  its 
sides.  Because  fires  from  defective  flues  start  underneath  roofs, 
back  of  ranges,  under  hearths,  and  in  other  places  not  in  plain 
view,  it  does  not  follow  that  there  is  anything  hidden  or  mys- 
terious about  them  or  anything  which  cannot  be  readily  under- 
stood. 

The  following  recommendations,  read  in  connection  with  the 
accompanying  illustrations,  will,  if  understood  and  observed  by 
the  reader,  enable  him  to  guard  the  lives  and  property  of  his 
family  against  fire  from  this  cause. 

a.  Build  all  chimneys  from  the  itronnd  np.  !Noiie  of  iheir 
weiilht  should  be  carried  by  anythinit  except  their  proper  foundations. 
Foundations  should  be  at  least  twelve  inches  wider  all  around  than 
the  area  of  the  chimney  and  be  started  well  below  the  frost  line. 

No  chimney  should  be  started  or  built  upon  any  floor  or 
beam  of  wood.  When  a  chimney  is  to  be  cut  off  below,  in  whole 
or  in  part,  it  should  be  wholly  supported  by  brick  or  stone  work, 
or  steel  construction,  properly  erected  from  the  ground  up. 
The  practice  of  supporting  chimneys  or  flues  on  wooden  or  iron 
brackets,or  iron  stirrups,  however  carefully  devised,  is  hazardous. 
A  small  fire  around  the  base  from  any  cause  may  drop  the  flue 
and  allow  draft  for  rapid  spread  of  fire. 

b.  Build  all  chimneys  to  a  point  at  least  three  feet  above  flat 
roofs,  and  tw^o  feet  above  the  ridge  of  peak  roofs. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  the  brick  work  of  the  chimney 
be  extended  out  over  the  roof  by  the  projection  of  the  course  of 
brick  nearest  to  it.  Such  a  shoulder  or  overhanging  projection 
will  inevitably  cause  cracks  in  the  chimney  in  case  the  chimney 
settles,  the  roof  in  such  event  lifting  the  upper  portion  by  means 
of  the  overhang,  or  shoulder,  and  causing  a  crack  at  the  most 
dangerous  of  all  places.  The  chimney  should  be  carried  up  of 
uniform  thickness  to  the  top,  copper  flashing  being  relied  upon 
to  prevent  leaks  at  the  joint  with  the  roof. 


120  FIELD     PRACTICE 

c.  For  domestic  heating  and  cooking  stoT'es  only,  chimney  avails 
may  be  but  fonr  inches  thick  if  a  suitable  flue  lining  of  fire  clay  is 
provided  therein.  For  the  best  results  ho^v^ever  no  chimney  >v^all 
should  be  less  than  eight  inches  (t^^o  courses  of  brick)  in  thickness, 
and  cement  mortar  only  should  be  used. 

Chimneys  with  but  four-inch  exterior  walls  are  not  always 
satisfactory.  They  readily  crack  and  are  also  easily  chilled, 
which  causes  a  bad  draft.  Where  fireplaces  are  built  of  stone, 
the  minimum  thickness  of  the  wall  should  be  twelve  inches. 

The  upper  part  of  chimney  walls  may  be  only  four  inches 
in  thickness,  from  a  point  at  least  six  inches  above  the  roof  to 
the  top  of  chimney,  provided  the  chimney  be  capped  with  terra 
cotta,  stone  or  cement,  or  the  bricks  be  carefully  bonded  or 
anchored  together. 

The  best  coping  is  a  three-inch  blue-stone,  and  it  is  im- 
portant to  see  that  the  holes  cut  in  the  capstone  correspond  in 
size  with  the  flues ;  otherwise  shoulders  will  be  formed  and  the 
draft  of  the  flue  interfered  with. 

d.  The  'w^alls  of  brick  buildings  -H^hen  not  less  than  thirteen 
inches  in  thickness  may  form  part  of  chimney  or  flue.  In  no  case 
should  a  chimney  or  flue  be  corbeled  out  more  than  eight  inches  from 
the  -Mrall,  and  in  all  cases  the  corbeling  should  consist  of  at  least  five 
courses  of  brick.  Flues  in  party  ^v^alls  should  not  extend  beyond  the 
center  of  said  Myalls,  and  their  presence  should  be  permanently  indi- 
cated on  both  sides  of  w^alls. 

e.  Build  all  chimneys  large  enough  to  give  a  separate  flue  for 
each  fire,  using  fire  clay  or  terra-cotta  tile  linings  at  least  one  inch 
in  thickness.  This  is  to  prevent  disintegration  of  mortar  and  brick 
from  gas  fumes. 

The  fire  clay  lining  is  not  subject  to  disintegration  by  any 
of  the  ordinary  flue  gases. 

The  lining  should  be  put  in  as  the  flue  is  constructed,  using 
great  care  to  see  that  the  joints  in  same  are  carefully  made. 

When  two  or  more  separate  flues  are  provided  in  chimney, 
the  division  walls  between  flues  may  be  only  four  inches  in 
thickness. 

Two  connections  to  a  single  flue  will  result  in  fire  from  one 
communicating  to  the  opening  of  the  other  and  thousands  of 
fires  have  originated  in  this  manner. 

Flues  in  throat  capacity  should  not  be  less  than  eight  by  eight 


FIELD     PRACTICE  12 1 

inches  on  the  inside,  and  for  fireplaces  in  which  wood  is  to  be  used 
they  should  be  eight  by  twelve  inches  (or  better,  twelve  inches 
by  twelve  inches)  in  the  clear.  A  good  rule  is  to  make  the  flue 
size  not  less  than  one-tenth  the  area  of  the  fireplace  opening. 
Green  or  unseasoned  firewood  will  require  a  flue  of  this  size  to 
insure  a  good  draft  and  prevent  smoking.  The  furnace  flue 
should  also  be  not  less  than  eight  by  twelve  inches  in  any  case. 

Be  careful  to  see  that  the  flues  are  properly  built.  Faults 
cannot  be  remedied  afterward.  All  flues  should  be  as  nearly 
vertical  as  possible. 

Masons  are  often  careless  about  lining  the  flue  even  where 
the  specifications  call  for  it,  and  are  apt  to  omit  it  until  they  get 
to  the  straight  part  of  the  flue.  This  makes  the  flue  dangerous 
at  its  hottest  point,  near  the  fireplace,  especially  if  it  be  sur- 
rounded by  only  four  inches  of  brickwork.  Make  sure  that  the 
flue  lining  is  carried  up  from  the  throat  of  the  fireplace. 

Where  flue  linings  are  not  provided,  be  careful  to  see  that 
all  joints  are  struck  smooth  on  the  inside,  and  that  projections 
of  bricks  or  mortar  are  not  allowed,  and  also  that  no  parging  or 
plastering  of  the  inside  of  the  flue  is  permitted  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. The  plastering  is  liable  to  fall  afterward,  under  the 
influence  of  heat  and  rain,  and  not  only  stop  up  the  flue,  but 
tear  out  the  plaster  between  the  joints  of  the  bricks.  The  flue 
lining  will  prove  the  cheapest  in  the  end,  for  it  will  maintain  a 
smooth  throat  and  thus  discourage  nest-building  by  chimney 
swallows. 

All  flues  in  every  building  should  be  properly  cleaned  and 
all  rubbish  removed,  and  the  flues  left  smooth  on  the  inside  upon 
the  completion  of  the  building. 

If  there  is  an  old  chimney  in  your  house  and  you  can  feel 
great  heat  from  the  flue  by  putting  your  hand  on  the  plaster  in 
a  room,  then  there  is  probably  no  lining  in  the  flue  and  the 
walls  are  only  four  inches  thick.  Have  the  chimney  examined. 
It  may  be  that  it  is  dangerous.  A  little  piece  of  flooring  taken 
up  close  to  the  flue  will  show  at  once  whether  or  not  the  beams 
have  been  properly  trimmed  away  from  it.  There  are  various 
ways  to  remove  this  danger.  The  beams  can  be  temporarily 
supported  from  below,  cut  off  short  and  a  head  piece  trimmed 
in  so  as  to  remove  the  proximity  of  the  wood   from  the  flue ;  or 


122  FIELD     PRACTICE 

the  flue  itself  can  be  lined.  In  that  case  the  brick  front  of  the 
flue  must  first  be  cut  out.  Sometimes  it  is  then  impracticable  to 
get  a  burned  clay  or  terra-cotta  lining  inside  of  the  old  flue  be- 
cause it  would  reduce  the  area  of  the  flue  too  much  and  seriously 
impede  the  draft.  In  these  cases  it  is  common  to  line  the  flue 
with  sheet  iron  pipe  with  well-locked  joints  using  at  least  No. 
10  gauge  metal  for  the  pipe.  Such  iron  pipe  can  also  be  more 
readily  placed  in  an  old  flue  than  terra  cotta  lining.  After  the 
lining  is  in  place  the  brick  front  face  of  the  flue  should  be 
relaid  in  Portland  cement  mortar. 

f.  Do  not  run  floor  Joists  or  other  -vv^ood^vork  into  chimneys  or 
flues  nor  allo^v  'ovood  casing,  lathing  or  furring  >vithin  t^vo  inches  of 
chimney  breasts. 

Where  the  chimney  breast  over  the  fireplace  or  mantel  is 
furred  out  and  finished  with  lath  and  plaster,  only  metal  lath 
should  be  used.  If  the  mantel  is  of  wood,  it  should  not  project 
far  enough  to  be  blistered  or  ignited.  Care  should  be  exercised 
in  its  selection. 

g.  All  floor  timbers  should  be  "  trimmed  **  clear  of  the  hearths 
and  brick>^ork  of  the  chimney,  so  as  not  to  be  in  contact  >vith  it  at  any 
point. 

This  is  easily  secured  by  what  are  known  as  "header" 
beams,  carried  in  front  of  the  fireplace  and  at  least  twenty 
inches  from  the  chimney  breast,  supported  by  the  "trimmer" 
beams,  which  enter  the  wall  on  each  side  of  the  chimney.  (See 
illustration.)  These  should  not  approach  the  side  of  the  chim- 
ney closer  than  four  inches.  The  intervening  "tail"  beams,  as 
they  are  called,  are  mortised  into  the  header.  Where  more  than 
three  tail  beams  are  framed  into  the  header,  however,  it  should 
be  supported  in  iron  stirrups  by  which  the  weight  is  carried  on 
the  trimmer  beams  without  mortising  into  them  by  "tenon  and 
tusk"  joints,  which  sacrifice  material  and  carrying  capacity.  In 
this  way  the  floor  beams  are  free  of  contact  with  chimney  flues. 
All  hearths  should  be  laid  on  trimmer  arches  of  brick  or  a  re- 
inforced concrete  slab  carried  across  from  the  chimney  breast 
to  the  header  beam  already  described,  so  that  the  hearth  shall 
not  rest  upon  or  near  wooden  beams  in  any  case.  (See  illus- 
tration.)    The  length  of  trimmer  arches  should  not  be  less  than 


FIELD     PRACTICE 


123 


the  width    of   the   chimney    breasts ;  nor   their  width    less    than 
twenty  inches  measured  from  the  face  of  the  chimney  breasts. 

h.  Line  fireplaces  w^ith  fire  brick  or  cast  iron.  If  ash  pits  are 
provided,  do  not  pile  ivood  or  rubbish  aiiainst  their  doors  in  base- 
ment. Keep  free  space  around  them  so  that  ashes  can  be  readily  re- 
moved and  also  that  coals  cannot  possibly  come  in  contact  w^ith  com- 
bustible material. 

When  a  heater  is  placed  in  a  fireplace,  the  hearth  should  be 
the  full  width  of  the  heater,  and  the  mantels  should  be  non-com- 
bustible. Fireplaces  should  never  be  closed  with  a  wood  fire 
board  ;  nor  should  a  wood  mantel  or  other  woodwork  be  exposed 
back  of  a  "summer  piece";  the  iron  work  of  the  latter  should 
be  placed  against  the  brick  or  stone  work  of  the  fireplace. 

i.  Be  careful  of  Joints  betM>-een  stovepipes  and  flues,  and  use 
thimbles  and  connections  in  accordance  >vith  specification  and  ordi- 
nances. If  a  stovepipe  is  taken  down  to  be  cleaned,  be  sure  that  it  is 
replaced  and  safely  plastered  in  position. 


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A  great  many  fires  start  at  the  point  where  stovepipe  enters 
the  flue.  Stovepipes  must  never  be  allowed  to  come  into  con- 
tact with  combustible  material. 


124 


FIELD    PRACTICE 


If  a  stove  should   be  placed   in  a  room   in  which   there  is  no 
smoke-flue,  and   the  stovepipe   has    to  pass    through   a   lath  and 


Sketch  showing  flues  built  in  wall;  the  center  flue 
shows  the  lining  pipe.  If  flue  is  in  a  party  wall  its 
presence  should  be  indicated  on  opposite  side  by  a 
projecting  course  of  brick.     (Not  shown  in  this  sketch.) 


plaster  or  wood  partition  to  connect  with  one,  great  care  is  re- 
quired to  make  it  safe.  Stovepipe  should  be  guarded  by  a  gal- 
vanized iron  thimble  having  double  walls  with  ventilation 
through  the  air  space;  thimbles  to  be  at  least  twelve  inches 
larger  than  the  pipes  passing  through  them.  If  the  smoke  pipe 
should  be  connected  to  a  furnace  and  heated  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture, then  the  diameter  of  the  guard-casing  should  be  increased 
to  a  suitable  size.  The  stovepipe  should  not  be  placed  closer 
than  six  inches  to  woodwork,  and  at  this  distance  it  is  always 
well  to  shield  it.  In  all  cases  where  metal  is  used  to  protect 
wood,  there  should  be  an  air  space  between  the  metal  and  the 
woodwork  to  be  protected. 

J.  After  remo-ving  a  stovepipe  from  a  chimney,  close  the  opening 
vrith  a  metal  flue  stop;  if  the  flue  connection  is  left  open  fire  may 
communicate,  and  if  it  is  closed  by  being  stuffed  full  of  rags  or  paper 
the  chances  are  that  it  -H'ill  communicate. 


FIELD     PRACTICE 


125 


126  FIELD    PRACTICE 

INSTRUCTIONS   FOR   REPAIRING  OLD  CHIMNEYS. 

Where  soft  coal  is  used,  it  is  necessary  to  rebuild  chimney  tops  every  few 
years. 

In  order  to  ascertain  if  chimneys  need  rebuilding,  climb  to  the  top  and  look 
down  inside.  If  mortar  has  fallen  out  from  between  the  bricks  on  the  inside,  it 
will  soon  do  so  all  the  way  through  the  wall.  Take  an  ice  pick  or  other  sharp 
implement  and  try  to  push  it  through  the  mortar;  if  you  can  do  so,  rebuild  at  once, 
as  follows : — 

Tear  it  down  to  a  point  below  the  roof,  get  fire  clay  tiling  of  the  same  size  as 
the  inside  measurement  of  the  chimney,  set  it  in  the  top  of  the  flue  and  build  up 
with  good  hard  brick  laid  in  cement,  consisting  of  t-wo  parts  of  sharp  river  sand 
and  one  part  of  good  Portland  cement.  Mix  and  lay  quickly  before  the  cement 
hardens.  This  will  make  a  solid  brick,  tile  and  cement  chimney  through  the 
roof,  where  there  is  most  danger,  and  is  the  best  that  can  be  done  unless  torn 
down  to  the  ground  and  rebuilt,  which  is  quite  expensive  and  seldom  necessary. 
Build  the  chimney  at  least  three  feet  above  the  peak  of  the  roof. 

Do  not  under  anv  circumstances  "  top  off "  a  chimney  with  tiling  or  metal, 
as  they  are  soon  destroyed  by  the  sulphurous  acid  gas  in  the  coal  smoke,  and  either 
fall  or  are  blown  off,  frequently  damaging  the  roof.  Build  it  all  the  way  up  with 
brick,  tiling  lined,  as  indicated  above. 


■     VIII 

DWELLING    HOUSE    HAZARDS 


FIELD     PRACTICE  129 

DWELLING   HOUSE   HAZARDS 

Ho-H^  to  Prevent  Fires  in  the  Home 

Fires  in  the  home  are  easier  io  prevent  than  to  extinitnish. 

Unlike  factory  fires,  many  of  w^hich  are  due  to  causes  insepar- 
able from  manufacturing,  practically  every  dwellinii  house  fire  is  due 
to  carelessness  or  neitlect.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  in  the 
home  to  prevent  fires  from  startinit,  because  when  they  do  start  there 
is  seldom  a  man  about  io  extini^uish  them.  Where  w^omen  and  de- 
fenseless children  are  housed,  every  human  consideration  demands 
the  utmost  vii^ilance  on  the  part  of  those  responsible  for  their  welfare. 

If  the  suilitestions  herein  are  understood  and  heeded,  many  a 
life  may  be  saved  and  many  a  home  successfully  (guarded  against 
destruction  by  fire. 

1.    HOUSEKEEPING. 

The  attic,  cellar  and  all  closets  and  outbuildings  should  be 
cleaned  at  least  once  every  year,  and  all  useless  material  and 
rubbish  removed  therefrom  and  burned.  These  unnecessary 
accumulations  are  dangerous,  and  are  the  causes  of  many  fires. 
Store  all  remaining  material  neatly  so  that  a  clear  passage  may 
be  had  between  or  around  boxes,  cases,  barrels,  etc. 

Metal  waste  baskets  only  should  be  used. 

In  storing  clothing,  first  remove  all  matches  or  other 
material  from  the  pockets  and  then  carefully  fold  and  neatly 
place  away.  Do  not  hang  clothes  where  they  will  be  near  hot 
chimneys. 

Do  not  go  into  closets  with  lighted  matches  or  candles. 

Care  should  be  exercised  in  burning  leaves,  dead  grass  or 
rubbish.  Keep  these  fires  a  safe  distance  from  buildings,  and 
never  light  them  on  windy  days. 

Do  not  bank  houses  in  the  winter  with  straw,  excelsior  or 
other  readily  inflammable  material ;  a  chimney  spark  or  carelessly 
thrown  match  may  ignite  it. 

Do  not  permit  painters,  in  repainting,  to  burn  off  old  paint 
with  torches  or  flame.  This  has  caused  many  fires.  Carpenters, 
plumbers  and  repair  men  should  be  requested  to  use  care  in 
handling  blow  torches,  heaters,  oils,  shavings,  etc.,  in  repairing. 
Call  these  hazards  to  their  attention. 


130  FIELD    PRACTICE 

2.  MATCHES. 

Use  only  safety  matches,  and  make  it  impossible  for  chil- 
dren to  get  them.  Always  place  burned  matches  in  metal  recep- 
tacles, never  throw  them  on  the  floor  or  into  waste  baskets. 

3.  SMOKING. 

To  smoke  in  garages,  in  bed,  or  around  stables  containing 
hay  is  deliberately  to  invite  disaster. 

4.  LIGHTING  HAZARDS. 

Swinging  gas  brackets  are  dangerous,  and  never  should  be 
allowed  near  curtains  or  dressers.  Fix  them  rigidly  so  as  to 
avoid  contact  with  combustible  material.  If  open  gas  flames  are 
within  three  feet  of  ceiling,  see  that  ceiling  is  protected  by 
smoke  bell  suspended  above  the  flame.  Tips  for  gas  lights  are 
inexpensive,  while  a  light  used  with  a  broken  tip  or  without  a 
tip  often  causes  fire.  Don't  use  pendant  gas  mantles  unless 
protected  underneath  with  wire  gauze.  Hot  carbon  deposits 
form  and  drop  from  mantles  of  gas  arc  lamps.  A  globe  closed 
at  the  bottom  is  safer. 

Examine  the  gas  meter,  see  that  it  is  securely  set  and  well 
connected,  and  is  not  located  near  open  lights  or  furnaces.  An 
outside  gas  shut-off  valve  to  service  connection  is  desirable. 
Never  look  for  gas  leaks  with  a  match,  candle  or  lamp. 

Where  a  dwelling  is  lighted  by  a  gasoline  vapor  or  acetylene 
gas  system  the  rules  governing  the  safe  use  of  these  illuminants 
should  be  carefully  studied  and  rigidly  observed. 

Illuminating  oils  should  be  kept  in  closed  metal  cans  in  a 
safe  place,  and  lamps  should  never  be  filled  except  by  daylight. 
Kerosene  lamps  should  be  kept  clean  and  properly  trimmed  and 
should  never  be  filled  when  lighted.  If  allowed  to  burn  all 
night,  select  one  that  contains  much  more  than  enough  oil.  A 
dirty  lamp  containing  only  a  little  oil  is  unsafe.  Lamps  with 
broad  bases  are  preferable.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  place 
them  near  inflammable  material,  under  shelves,  nor  to  set  nor 
leave  lamps  or  lanterns  in  stables  or  other  places  where  animals 
may  upset  them.  Never  allow  little  children  to  carry  lamps,  and 
never  set  a  lamp  on  a  table  cover.     Children  may  pull  it  over. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  181 

Do  not  use  paper  or  decorative  shades  of  inflammable 
material  on  lamps  or  electric  light  bulbs. 

Electricity  is  a  hidden  hazard,  and  extends  throughout  the 
wire  system  in  a  building.  Be  sure  it  is  safely  installed,  and 
have  the  system  carefully  inspected  and  passed  upon  by  a  recog- 
nized electrical  inspector.  Many  fires  are  due  to  defective 
electric  wiring.  Do  not  destroy  the  insulation  on  electric 
light,  fan  or  heater  wires  by  hanging  them  on  hooks  or  nails. 
Immediately  repair  or  replace  any  defective  switches,  fuses, 
sockets,  etc.  A  fuse  is  the  "safety  valve"  of  an  electric  system, 
and  should  never  be  replaced  by  one  of  larger  size  or  any  other 
material. 

Before  attaching  electric  irons,  vacuum  cleaners,  cooking 
utensils  or  any  other  electrical  device  to  your  lighting  circuits 
or  sockets,  consult  an  electrician  as  to  the  ability  of  your  wiring 
to  withstand  this  additional  load.  Electric  wiring  systems  are 
designed  to  carry  only  a  certain  current,  and  if  overloaded  may 
cause  fires.  Numerous  fires  have  been  caused  by  leaving 
electric  irons  with  the  current  on.  Disconnect  them  immediately 
when  through  using. 

5.    HEATING  HAZARDS. 

Coal  and  kindling  should  preferably  be  kept  within  a  brick 
or  stone  enclosure  and  not  stored  against  frame  partitions  nor 
directly  against  walls  of  boiler  or  furnace  rooms. 

Never  put  kindling  into  the  oven. 

Deposit  all  ashes  in  metal  receptacles  or  upon  non-com- 
bustible floors,  removing  same  from  building  at  least  once  a 
week.  Barrels  or  boxes  should  not  be  used  for  storing  or  carry- 
ing ashes  unless  they  are  constructed  entirely  of  metal. 

Before  starting  fires  in  the  autumn,  thoroughly  clean  out 
furnace  and  flues  thereto,  also  fireplaces.  Carefully  examine 
them  and  immediately  repair  or  replace  any  defective  part. 
Don't  burn  out  chimneys  and  flues  by  making  an  especially  hot 
fire  with  paper,  etc.  Main  chimneys  should  be  cleaned  from 
roof  to  cellar,  and  all  stovepipes  where  entering  them  provided 
with  metal  collar  and  rigidly  fixed  in  place.  Replace  any  tile, 
crock  or  flimsy  flues  and  chimneys  with  substantial  brick  chim- 
neys.    Long  lengths  of  metal  stovepipe  are  dangerous.     At  least 


182  FIELD    PRACTICE 

a  thirty-six  inch  clearance  is  necessary  between  top  and  sides  of 
furnace,  breeching  and  flues  from  ceiling,  partitions  and  other 
combustible  material.  Repair  at  once  any  broken  plaster  in  ceil- 
ing or  partition  walls. 

Do  not  have  steam  pipes  in  contact  with  woodwork  or  near 
inflammable  materials,  and  do  not  permit  rubbish  to  accumulate 
behind  steam  coils  or  radiators. 

Natural  gas  stoves  or  other  heaters  should  have  a  ventilating 
flue  to  carry  off  the  burned  gas  fumes,  which  are  poisonous. 
Do  not  use  rubber  or  similar  flexible  tubing,  but  connect  all 
gas  stoves  rigidly  and  securely  to  gas  pipe.  Examine  valves  and 
see  that  they  are  tight  and  do  not  leak. 

Never  permit  a  stove  of  any  kind  to  be  set  up  without  tile, 
stone,  brick,  concrete  or  metal  protection  underneath,  or  near  a 
partition  without  a  metal  shield  and  air  space. 

Never  run  stovepipes  through  partitions,  without  the  pro- 
tection prescribed  in  Chimneys  and  Flues,  nor  paste  paper  over 
flue  holes. 

All  types  of  open  fireplaces  or  stoves,  especially  where  there 
are  children,  should  be  provided  with  substantial  spark  screens. 

Don't  throw  waste  paper  on  an  open  fire. 

Every  period  of  extreme  cold  results  in  numerous  fires  due 
to  forcing  the  heating  apparatus.  Keep  this  in  mind  next  winter. 
Watch  your  heater.  Keep  hoods  and  pipes  of  kitchen  range 
free  from  grease  and  lint  by  cleaning  with  hot  water  and  lye. 

Do  not  hang  clothes  or  bags  near  stoves,  or  on  stovepipes 
or  steam  pipes. 

Do  not  allow  your  family  to  jeopardize  their  lives  by  pour- 
ing kerosene  onto  the  kitchen  fire  to  hurry  it  along.  Do  not  try 
to  start  fires  in  stoves  and  furnaces  or  any  place  else  with  oil. 
Any  oil  that  can  be  of  assistance  in  the  starting  of  fire  is  dan- 
gerous for  that  use. 

Extreme  care  should  be  used  with  alcohol  or  kerosene  stoves. 
They  should  always  be  filled  in  the  daylight  and  away  from  any 
open  flame. 

6.    GASOLINE  AND  EXPLOSIVES. 

Do  not  use  patent  cleaning  fluids,  polish  or  chemicals  unless 
you  know  something  about  them.  Many  of  these  contain  explo- 
sives and  oils  of  a  dangerous  character. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  133 

Do  all  gasoline  cleaning  in  the  open  air,  and  caution  the 
members  of  the  family  to  refrain  from  using  gasoline  or  like 
volatiles  in  the  house.  This  material  should  not  be  kept  in  the 
house  nor  in  glass  bottles. 

Beware  of  rags  or  cloths  used  in  oiling  floors  or  cleaning  or 
polishing  furniture.  They  may  ignite  spontaneously.  Be  sure 
and  burn  them  after  using.  Leaving  them  about  for  only  a  few 
hours  may  mean  a  fire. 

7.  FIRE  PROTECTION. 

One  or  more  approved  chemical  fire  extinguishers  should  be 
placed  in  every  home.     They  must  be  protected  against  freezing. 

It  is  well  to  see  that  the  garden  hose  may  be  attached  to  the 
kitchen  faucet. 

8.  THE  FAMILY  GARAGE. 

Never  allow  open  flame  lights  in  a  garage.  Run  the  auto 
outside  when  filling  the  tank  so  that  gasoline  vapors  will  dissi- 
pate. 

Do  not  keep  quantities  of  gasoline  or  calcium  carbide  inside 
of  garage  or  dwelling.  An  approved  underground  storage  tank 
is  the  safest  method  for  keeping  gasoline. 

A  metal  waste  can  should  be  located  at  a  convenient  place 
outside  the  garage  for  all  waste  and  greasy  rags.  Burn  these 
every  week. 

It  is  unsafe  to  use  sawdust  or  shavings  to  absorb  grease  and 
oil  in  a  garage.  If  the  floor  is  wooden,  scrub  it  occasionally 
with  hot  water  and  lye. 

The  use  of  gasoline  for  cleaning  parts  of  the  automobile  in 
the  garage  is  a  dangerous  thing. 

The  garage  should  not  be  heated  by  means  of  stove  or  open 
fire  of  any  kind,  unless  same  is  isolated  in  another  room  so  that 
the  gasoline  vapors  of  garage  cannot  possibly  get  to  it.  Gasoline 
vapor  travels. 

Keep  an  approved  fire  extinguisher  and  a  pail  of  sand  in 
garage.  Water  thrown  on  burning  gasoline  merely  serves  to 
spread  it;  sand  does  not. 


134  FIELD    PRACTICE 

9.    IN  GENERAL. 

Have  the  telephone  number  of  the  nearest  fire  station  on  a 
special  card  at  your  telephone.  Familiarize  the  family  with 
the  operation  of  the  nearest  fire  alarm  box.  After  operating  a 
fire  alarm,  stay  near  it  to  direct  the  fireman  to  the  fire.  Every 
minute  is  significant. 

Don't  fail  to  notify  the  chief  of  the  fire  department  of  any- 
thing you  may  see  that  is  dangerous  or  liable  to  cause  fire. 


SECTION    TWO 

FIRE  PROTECTION  AND  UPKEEP 

(Automatic  and  Hand  or  Manual) 

I.     AUTOMATIC   SPRINKLERS 

II.     FIRE   PROTECTION   IN^  GENERAL 


I.    AUTOMATIC    SPRINKLERS 

Functions,  Design  and  Reliability. 

1.  Sprinklers  and  their  Distribution. 

2.  Feed  Mains  and  Risers. 

3.  Gate  Valves  and  Fittings. 

4.  Check  Valves. 

5.  Dry  Pipe  Valves. 

6.  Alarm  Valves  to  Automatic  Sprinkler  Systems. 

7.  Underground  Pipes. 

8.  Water  Supplies  to  Automatic   Sprinkler  Systems. 

A.  Publio 

B.  Private 


FIELD    PRACTICE  139 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


FUNCTIONS.   DESIGN  AND   RELIABILITY 

The  present  day  approved  type  of  automatic  sprinkler  is  a 
device  representing  years  of  experiment  by  experts,  who  have 
made  careful  study,  tests  and  practical  demonstrations  of  its  fire 
extinguishing  value. 

The  life  of  an  automatic  sprinkler  depends  primarily  upon 
its  design,  quality  of  workmanship,  and  ability  to  retain  for  ex- 
tended periods  sufficient  motive  power,  independent  of  water 
pressures,  to  overcome  all  reasonable  obstructions  to  its  free 
operation.  The  reliability  of  a  sprinkler  in  practice  therefore 
depends  not  only  upon  the  influence  of  surrounding  conditions 
but  also  upon  the  excellence  of  its  design  and  construction. 
The  more  important  influences  which  tend  to  decrease  the 
reliability  of  a  device  of  this  character  are  the  effects  of  corro- 
sion resulting  from  acid  and  alkaline  fumes  and  the  effects  of 
"loading"  by  such  materials  as  paper  pulp,  sawdust,  drying 
oils,  lint,  caked  dust  from  grinding  processes,  etc. 

The  present  approved  types  of  sprinklers  are  not  affected  as 
much  by  the  above  conditions  as  are  the  sprinklers  of  the  earlier 
issues,  or  those  of  antiquated  design,  although  all  sprinklers  are 
thus  influenced  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  However,  the  visual 
condition  of  a  sprinkler  is  not  always  a  true  criterion  of  reliabil- 
ity, particularly  in  the  earlier  or  unapproved  types.  Inspectors 
are  therefore  cautioned  to  give  particular  attention  not  only  to 
the  physical  condition  of  the  sprinklers,  as  indicated  by  a  visual 
examination,  but  also  to  determine  whether  the  sprinklers  are 
of  an  approved  type. 

Where  sprinklers  are  found  in  service  showing  evidences  of  deterioration  or 
of  questionable  operative  value,  it  is  advisable  to  obtain  at  least  twelve  representa- 
tive samples  and  forward  them  to  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  Inc.,  for  an 
official  test  and   report.    These  sprinklers  should  be  carefully  removed  so  that 


140  FIELD    PRACTICE 

their  condition  when  tested  will  be  the  same  as  when  in  service.  Care  should  also 
be  taken  to  see  that  these  sprinklers  are  immediately  replaced  by  other  sprinklers. 

The  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  Inc.,  in  its  report  dwells  not  only  upon  the 
results  of  such  tests,  but  also  renders  a  positive  official  opinion  as  to  whether  or 
not  the  sprinklers  are  defective  or  unreliable  for  continued  service. 

These  reports  give  information  not  only  as  to  the  sensitiveness  of  the  sprink- 
ler and  the  action  of  the  sprinkler  in  opening,  but  detailed  information  as  to  the 
results  of  previous  tests  upon  the  same  type  of  sprinkler  and  its  field  records. 

Uniform  application  of  tests  are  essential,  and  it  is  not  recommended  that  lay- 
men or  inspectors  in  the  field,  not  having  the  necessary  knowledge  and  apparatus, 
should  ever  undertake  officially  to  pass  upon  questionable  sprinklers.  This  should 
be  left  with  the  Underwriters*  Laboratories,  Inc.,  for  systematic  and  official  treat- 
ment, especially  since  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  demarcation  between  reliability 
and  unreliability  of  the  device  cannot  be  accurately  determined  except  by  laboratory 
tests. 


1.     SPRINKLERS  AND   THEIR   DISTRIBUTION 

(a)  Note  the  type  and  design  of  the  sprinkler  and  the  year  of  its  manufacture.    If 

complete  installation  consists  of  various  types  of  sprinklers,  note  each 
type  installed, 

(b)  Note  if  the  sprinklers  are  placed  in  an  upright  or  pendent  position.     (Up- 

right position  is  preferable,  and  when  possible  should  be  followed.) 

If  the  sprinklers  are  installed  on  a  dry-pipe  sysiem,  they  should 
not  be  installed  in  a  pendent  position. 

(c)  The  distance  of  the  deflectors  from  the  ceiling  or  bottom  of  the  joists  should 

not  be  less  than  three  inches  nor  more  than  ten  inches.  The  deflectors 
should  be  parallel  to  the  ceiling,  roof,  or  the  incline  of  stairs,  but  when 
installed  in  the  peak  of  a  pitched  roof,  they  should  be  horizontal. 

(d)  Observe  any  building  or  room  from  which  sprinklers  are  omitted,  including 

such  places  as  basements,  lofts,  towers,  under  stairs,  under  skylights,  and 
inside  elevator  ^vells,  vertical  shafts,  in  belt,  cable,  pipe,  gear  and  pulley 
boxes,  inside  small  enclosures,  such  as  drying  and  heating  boxes,  dry 
room  enclosures,  chutes,  conveyor  trunks,  cupboards  and  closets  (unless 
open  at  the  top) ,  Such  places  should  have  sprinklers.  Sprinklers  should 
not  be  omitted  from  any  room  merely  because  it  is  damp,  wet,  or  of  fire- 
resistive  construction. 
Observe  also  if  there  are  sprinklers  inside  all  show  windows,  boxed  ma- 
chines, metal  air  ducts,  ventilators,  concealed  spaces,  under  large  shelves, 
benches  and  tables,  under  overhead  storage  racks,  under  platforms  and 
similar  water  sheds.  All  such  surfaces  over  four  feet  in  width  should 
have  sprinklers. 

In  order  not  to  exceed  the  schedule  capacity  of  piping  it  is 
frequently  advisable  to  require  that  additional  sprinklers  needed 
in  a  story    be  placed    on    a    pipe    extending   up    from    the    story 


FIELD    PRACTICE  141 

below.     A   sprinkler  head  needed  in  a  counter-shaft  box  or  in  a 
caul  box  or  under  work  bench  can  be  installed  in  this  manner. 

(e)  There  should   be  mnintained    on  the  premises  never  less  than  six    extra 

sprinklers,  to  replace  promptly  any  fused  by  fire  or  in  any  way  injured. 

(f)  Sprinklers  must  not  be  obstructed  by  highly  piled  stock  or  material,  nor  by 

partitions  or  walls  which  might  prevent  free  and  proper  water  distribution. 
A  clearance  of  at  least  twenty-four  inches  is  imperative  under  ceilings, 
and  thirty-six  inches  is  advisable. 

(fir)  Check  up  additional  branches  and  sprinklers  installed  since  original  instal- 
lation, noting  that  system,  particularly  in  the  smaller  distributing  pipes, 
has  not  become  overloaded  by  exceeding  the  pipe  schedule  limit. 

(h)  Observe  if  proper  schedule  of  spacing  is  followed,  which  spacing  must 
strictly  conform  to  standard  respecting  ceiling  construction. 

(1)  Determine  whether  any  change  in  the  occupancy  of  the  building  has  taken 
place  since  the  original  installation,  which  may  have  required  high  degree 
sprinklers.  Ordinary  degree  sprinklers  should  be  substituted  for  high 
degree  sprinklers,  where  the  latter  are  made  unnecessary. 

Hiilh  decree  sprinklers  should  be  used  only  -vrhen  absolutely- 
necessary.  When  used,  the  fusinii  points  should  be  as  low  as  the 
conditions  -will  safely  permit. 

The  melting  degree  point  of  sprinklers  in  service  may 
readily  be  ascertained  by  noting  painted  color  of  sprinkler  head 
frame,  viz.,  if  painted  Red,  360°;  if  painted  Blue,  286°;  if 
painted  White,  212°;  Brass  finish,  165°.  (Old  unapproved  sprin- 
klers, however,  are  misleading  in  this  respect,  as  this  color 
scheme  was  not  adopted  uniformly  until  about  1905.) 

In  instances  of  change  of  occupany,  observe  if  building 
heating  arrangements  have  been  so  modified  as  to  necessitate 
transfer  from  wet  to  dry  systems. 

(J)  When  the  sprinklers  are  subjected  to  severe  conditions  of  corrosion,  they 
should  be  protected  by  some  corrosion  resisting  material. 

Two  methods  are  now  employed  by  sprinkler  companies 
for  protecting  sprinklers  against  such  conditions,  one  of  which 
consists  in  coating  ordinary  degree  heads  with  a  compound 
which  softens  before  the  fusing  point  of  the  solder  is  reached, 
and  the  other  of  sealing  the  working  parts  with  a  glass  cover 
which,  upon  the  operation  of  the  releasing  device,  is  blown  off 
by  the  air  or  water  pressure.  The  former  is  designed  for  use  on 
ordinary  degree  sprinklers  only,  while  the  latter  is  designed  for 
use  on  sprinklers  installed  in  an  upright  position  only. 


142  FIELD     PRACTICE 

(k)  Require  prompt  removal  from  sprinklers  of  all  coatings  of  paint,  excessive 
deposits  or  incrustations,  whitewash,  bronzing-  or  other  coating,  or  request 
the  replacement  of  the  sprinklers.  This  does  not  apply  to  approved 
coatings  or  corrosion-resisting  materials  applied  by  the  manufacturers 
of  the  sprinkler. 

In  case  these  coaiin^s  have  been  on  the  devices  for  some  time 
and  there  is  some  question  as  to  ^vhether  the  sprinklers  have  been 
cleaned  efficiently,  t-welve  representative  sanaples  should  be  removed 
from  the  piping  and  sent  to  the  Under^v^riters'  Laboratories,  Inc.,  for 
examination  and  official  report  as  to  their  reliability. 

(1)     Approved  hangers  supporting  sprinkler  lines  must  be  used  and  be  secured  by 

screws  in  wood  ceilings,  and  inserts  or  bolts  in  fireproof  ceilings.     (Nails 

should  never  be  used.) 

The  vibration  of  floors  often  loosens  hangers.     This  is  knoM^n  to 

have  -weakened   the  releasing  mechanisms  of  sprinklers  on  the  lines 

-where  it  has  occurred. 

(m)  Note  that  all  pipes  have  the  proper  pitch  in  order  that  pockets  to  catch  sedi- 
ment and  frost  may  not  form.  This  feature  is  of  special  importance  in 
dry-pipe  systems.  Care  should  be  taken  that  heads  are  not  raised  up 
between  the  joists.  The  proper  correction  is  to  lower  the  other  lines, 
taking  care  to  still  maintain  proper  drainage. 

(n)  Observe  whether  sprinkler  piping  is  used  for  the  support  of  stocks,  clothing, 
etc.     Sprinkler  piping  must  not  be  used  for  such  purposes. 

(o)  In  buildings  of  large  area,  or  buildings  subject  to  continued  drafts,  the  im- 
portance of  heat  banking  curtains  should  not  be  overlooked.  Vertical 
openings,  not  otherwise  cut  off,  should  have  heat  banking  curtains. 


2.    FEED   MAINS  AND   RISERS 

The  proper  location  of  feed  mains  is  a  very  important  item 
in  installing  a  sprinkler  equipment.  The  "center  central"  feed 
is  preferred,  especially  in  cases  where  the  width  of  a  room  re- 
quires more  than  six  sprinklers  on  a  single  branch  line. 
The  "side  central"  feed  may  often  be  used  without  detriment, 
but  the  "end"  feed  has  not  been  approved  for  many  years,  and 
will  rarely  be  found. 

The  number  of  risers  is  governed  primarily  by  the  number 
of  sprinklers  on  a  single  floor  of  a  building,  when  floors  are  not 
cut  by  open  light  wells,  stairways,  elevators,  etc. 

The  main  water  supplies  should  enter  the  sprinkler  system 
at  the  foot  of  each  riser.  (In  comparatively  rare  instances, 
where  the  only  automatic   supplies   are  gravity  and/or  pressure 


FIELD    PRACTICE  148 

tanks,  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction  may  have 
made  a  special  ruling,  permitting  such  tanks  to  connect  to  top 
of  riser.) 

(a)  There  should  be  a  ^4,-inch  test  pipe  having  a  standard  brass  ^^-inch  outlet  at  top 

of  each  riser;  this  should  be  operated  at  each  inspection  to  observe  if 
there  is  free  flow  at  good  pressure.  (This  to  apply  on  wet  systems  only.) 
Note  that  this  is  so  located  as  not  to  cause  water  damage  to  other  property. 

Note. — In  many  instances  a  connection  -will  be  found  near  test 
valve  where  inspector  can  attach  his  ilauite  and  ascertain  pressure 
available. 

(b)  A  drain  valve  (generally  two  inches  in  size)  is  located  at  foot  of  each  riser. 

This   should   be   opened  wide  at  each   inspection  for  a  sufficiently  long 
period  to  determine  that  the  pressure  holds  up  and  that  there  is  no  obstruc- 
tion in  riser.    (See  Dry- Pipe  Valves.) 
This  flowinil  pressure  test  is  greatly  increased  in  value  if  a  ilauile 
connection  is  provided  in  riser,  opposite  drain  valve,  so  that  inspec- 
tor's ilauiie  can  be  attached  and  comparative  pressure  readinils  taken 
at    succeedintl   inspections.     For  instance,  if  the  normal  static  pres- 
sure is  50  lbs.,  and  upon  opening  valve  pressure  normally  drops  to 
45  lbs.,  it  w^ill  be  apparent  if  at  some  inspection  the  pressure  drops 
io  (say)  35  lbs.  (or  under),  that  there  is  some  obstruction  to  the  flo>v- 
w^hich  should  be  removed. 

Systems  equipped  >vith  supervisory  or  Central  Station 
Alarm  service  should  not  be  tested  without  first  obtaining 
special  permission  from  supervising  office. 

In  such  properties  as  paint  and  varnish  works,  oil  works, 
wholesale  drug  houses,  and  where  extensive  process  piping 
systems  are  used,  the  painting  of  the  various  pipe  lines  will  be 
found  a  convenience  in  distinguishing  these  systems.  Sprinkler 
and  water  lines  might  be  designated  by  red  paint,  gas  lines  by 
green  paint,  domestic  process  lines  by  blue  paint,  etc.  Never 
paint  the  sprinkler  heads. 


3.     GATE  VALVES  AND  FITTINGS 

The  property  owner  and  the  inspector  should  know  the  exact 
location  of  all  inside  gate  valves,  as  well  as  outside  ones  pro- 
vided with  indicator  posts  or  requiring  key  to  open. 

It  is  good  practice  to  locate  at  several  points  about  the 
premises,  preferably  under  glass,  a  plan  showing  piping  and 
valves. 


144  FIELD     PRACTICE 

Indicator  posts  attached  to  underground  valves  controlling 
sprinkler  systems  are  now  standard  practice.  They  are  quickly 
accessible  in  event  of  fire  breaking  out  while  water  is  shut  off 
for  repairs ;  and,  in  event  of  sprinkler  failure,  they  can  be  closed 
to  prevent  water  waste. 

Valves  inside  of  buildings,  or  those  located  in  pits,  should 
be  of  the  straightway,  outside  screw  and  yoke,  or  other  approved 
indicator  pattern.  The  O.  S.  and  Y.  type  valve  is  far  prefer- 
able, owing  to  its  simplicity  of  design  and  operation,  and  the 
fact  that  the  projecting  stem  shows  the  position  of  gate. 

1.    INDICATOR  POSTS. 

The  following  features  should  be  covered : — 

(a)  Attachment  should  be  by  bolts  or  lugs  rather  than  by  set  screws,  as  the  latter 

corrode  and  lose  their  hold. 

(b)  Posts  should  be  kept  well  painted. 

(c)  Posts  should  be  marked  as  to  section  which  they  control. 

(d)  Posts  preferably  should  be  locked  open. 

(e)  If  wrenches  are  not  kept  on  posts,  they  should  be  at  a  known  and  accessible 

point. 

(f)  Targets  and  glass  protecting  them  should  be  in  good  condition. 

2.  UNDERGROUND  VALVES. 

Valves  controlling  water  supplies,  provided  for  shutting  off 
water  to  permit  of  repairs,  etc.,  should  be  inspected  with  regard 
to  the  following:  — 

(a)  If  located  in  pits,  to  be  of  the  O.  S.  and  Y.  type,  sealed  or  strapped  open. 

(b)  To  protect  stems  against  dirt,  O.  S.  and  Y.  valves  in  pits  are  sometimes  pro- 

vided with  a  loose  metal  sleeve  fitting  over  the  stem. 

(c)  Underground  gates,  requiring  key  to  operate,  should  have  sleeves  projecting 

above  ground,  cover  to  keep  out  dirt  and  ice,  and  sleeve  should  be  free 
from  any  kind  of  accumulation. 

(d)  See  that  wrenches  are  provided  for  operation  of  underground  valves,  and  that 

they  are  kept  at  accessible  points.    All  underground  valves  should  have 
the  same  sized  nuts  on  valve  stem. 

3.  INSIDE  VALVES. 

Valves  connected  with  pumps,  tanks,  sprinkler  risers,  con- 
trolling sections  of  sprinkler  system,  etc.,  should  be  inspected 
with  regard  to  the  following: — 

(a)     Valves  should  be  open,  except  for  shutting  off  small  sections  during  cold 
weather  or  where  special  conditions  require  their  being  kept  closed. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  145 

(b)  Valves  should  be  strapped  or  sealed  open. 

(c)  When  under  central  station  control,  straps  and  seals  may  be  omitted. 

(d)  Valves  should  be  easily  accessible,  and  in  no  way  obstructed. 

(e)  A  permanent  ladder  should  be  installed  at  all  valves  located  at  ceilings  or  at 

other  high  elevations.    Treads  may  be  installed  on  risers  leading  to  floor 
valves. 

(f)  See  that    drain  valves  are  properly   located  and  in   good   condition.      (See 

Feed  Mains  and  Risers.) 

4.  INSTALLATION   REQUIREMENTS. 

(a)  All  gate  valves  should  have  bronze  stems. 

(b)  All  valves  should  be  of  the  straightway  type. 

(c)  Each  water  supply  should  have  individual  gate  valves. 

(d)  No  floor  valves  should  be  attached  to  dry  pipe  systems. 

5.  TESTS. 

It  is  generally  considered  good  policy  to  close  all  valves  at 
least  once  a  year,  and  then  to  open  them,  to  demonstrate  that 
they  are  in  operating  condition.  (Under  no  conditions  should 
this  be  done  without  permission  from  management.)  Frequent 
tests  are  objectionable,  because  they  are  likely  to  cause  valve 
stuffing  boxes  to  leak.  However,  the  exact  condition  of  packing 
should  be  ascertained.  Valve  stems  should  be  properly  oiled 
and  greased  at  least  once  a  year.  (Under  no  conditions  should 
this  be  done  without  permission  of  management  and  from  In- 
spection Department  having  jurisdiction.  Before  leaving  plant 
Inspector  should  assure  himself  that  all  valves  are  open.) 

6.  DIRECTION  TO  CLOSE. 

Valves  should  be  examined  to  determine  the  direction  in 
which  they  close.  All  valves,  especially  underground  ones,  in 
any  one  plant,  preferably  should  be  of  the  same  type. 


4.     CHECK  VALVES 

Check  valves  are  required  to  prevent  back  flow  where 
pressures  vary.  The  connection  between  each  water  supply  and 
the  piping  system  should  be  provided  with  a  check  valve.  (It  is 
customary  also  to  provide  a  gate  valve  in  the  same  line  with  each 
check  valve,  and  this  gate  valve  should  always  be  on  the  system 
or  down  stream  side  of  the  check  valve,  so  that  if  it  is  neces- 


146  FIELD     PRACTICE 

sary  to  repair  the  check  valve  the  gate  valve  can  be  closed,  and 
protection  maintained  on  the  system  by  means  of  the  other  water 
supplies.  When  the  water  supplies  are  automatic — such  as  a  city 
water  or  tank  supply — a  gate  valve  is  also  ordinarily  installed 
on  the  supply  side  of  the  check  valve.) 

Check  valves  of  the  straightway  pattern  only  are  approved. 
There  should  be  ample  clearance  around  the  clapper  to  insure 
against  its  being  obstructed  by  corrosion  or  incrustations. 
(Clapper  and  seat  should  preferably  be  of  bronze  for  the  same 
reason. ) 

As  check  valves  are  not  wholly  reliable  when  placed  ver- 
tically, they  should  always  be  installed  in  a  horizontal  position. 

Check  valves  should  ordinarily  be  installed  underground  (in 
frostproof  pits,  well  drained),  so  that  they  will  not  be  affected 
by  falling  walls  or  other  disaster. 

Each  steamer  connection  should  be  provided  with  a  check 
valve,  and  should  be  connected  on  system  side  of  the  check 
valve  in  supply  main,  and  preferably  between  check  valve  and 
gate  valve.  A  three-fourths  inch  drip  pipe  and  valve  should  be 
provided  for  drainage. 

In  large  dry-pipe  systems  check  valves  (especially  con- 
structed for  the  purpose)  will  occasionally  be  found  in  the 
sectional  feeds.  These  are  installed  for  the  purpose  of  quicken- 
ing the  action  of  the  dry-pipe  valve  by  making  it  unnecessary  to 
exhaust  the  air  pressure  in  the  entire  dry-pipe  system  in  case  of 
fire.  Such  is  not  modern  practice,  and  in  large  systems  recom- 
mend that  lines  be  sub-divided  and  one  or  more  additional  dry- 
pipe  valves  installed. 

In  some  localities  where  fire  pumps  take  water  from  sources 
of  doubtful  cleanliness,  the  city  authorities  require  the  so- 
called  "double-check"  system,  in  order  to  insure  the  non-con- 
tamination of  the  city  water. 

(a)  Note  that  check  valves  are  installed  where  necessary, 

(b)  See  that  all  check  valves  are  properly  installed. 

On  many  check  valves  -w^ill  be  found  arrows  pointing  in  the  di- 
rection of  flow.     Also  the  Ings  on  sides  of  body  show  on  supply  side. 

(c)  Where  there  is  reason   to  suspect  that  check  valve  clappers  have  been  re- 

moved or  that  check  valves  are  not  seating  properly,  specific  examination 
should  be  made. 

(d)  Check  valves  should  be  tested  occasionally  for  tightness  by  raising  pressure. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  147 


5.     DRY   PIPE  VALVES 


In  many  buildings  it  is  impossible  to  heat  the  premises 
properly  so  as  to  prevent  water  in  sprinkler  pipes  from  freezing, 
and    in  such  cases    it    is  necessary  to  install    a   dry-pipe  system. 

Such  a  system  introduces  possibilities  of  mechanical  failure, 
and  retards  promptness  with  which  water  reaches  fire,  and  it  is 
not  recommended  unless  heating  is  impracticable.  Its  use, 
however,  is  far  preferable  to  shutting  off  water  during  the 
winter  months. 

(Published  rules  covering  Automatic  Sprinklers  should  be 
consulted.) 

The  number  of  sprinklers  dependent  upon  one  dry  valve 
should  not  exceed  600,  and  preferably  not  300.  Where  systems 
comprise  over  500  heads,  two  or  more  dry  valves  should  be  pro- 
vided, the  system  being  divided  horizontally. 

Frequent  inspection  of  dry  valves  is  necessary. 

(a)  Type  of  Valve.     Note  type   and  design  of  valve.     Only  approved  valves 

should  be  used.     Many  of  the  older  types  of  dry  valves  are  unreliable. 

(b)  Settinit.     Determine  if  valve  is  properly  set.    This  is  not  readily  apparent 

with  certain  forms  of  valves. 

(c)  Pressures.     See  that  gauges  register  water  pressure  below  dry  valve  and 

air  pressure  above. 
Air  pressure  ordinarily  should  not  exceed  40  lbs. 
Check  gauges  with  inspector's  gauge. 

(d)  Operate  2-inch  drain  valve  below  dry-pipe  valve  to  make  sure  water  supply 

is  clear  up  to  dry  valve. 

(e)  Make  absolutely  sure  that  eniire  system  of  piping  is  free  from  water.     Ice 

may  shut  off  the  air  and  prevent  the  valve  tripping.    This  can  be  deter- 
mined by  blowing  out  all  drips  and  drain  outlets. 

(f)  Water   Column.     Leakage    past    dry  valve,  or  drainage  or  condensation 

from   system   may  cause  water  column.     Open  draw-off  or  test  valve  to 
remove  such  water. 

(g)  Fittings.     See   that  automatic  drain,  gauge   connections,   drip  cups,  and 

other  fittings  are  in  place  and  properly  adjusted, 
(h)     Air  Connections.     Air  line  valves  to  be  kept  closed.     Air  compressors  to 

be  connected,  and  to  be  in  good  working  order.    (See  Air  Compressors.) 
Note. — In  extensive  dry-pipe  systems  such  as  obtain  in  piers,  warehouses, 

car  barns,  etc.,  it  is   sometimes  the  practice  to  maintain  automatic  air 

compressors,  in  which  case  it  is  necessary  that  the  air  line  valves  be  kept 

open  at  all  times, 
(i)      Alarm   Connections.     Examine  and   test  alarm  circuit  closers,  and  see 

that  wiring  is  properly  installed,  and  not  subject  to   mechanical   injury. 

(See  Section  on  Alarm   Valves.) 


148  FIELD     PRACTICE 

(J)  Cabinets.  In  unheated  buildings,  dry  valves  must  be  placed  in  frost-proof, 
heated  cabinets,  so  as  to  be  reliable.  See  that  sprinkler  head,  provided 
with  shut-off  valve,  is  placed  in  cabinet,  and  connected  to  riser  below  dry- 
pipe  valve.     See  that  shut-off  valve  is  open. 

Note. — Unless  there  is  an  alarm  valve  in  supply  pipe  the  sprinkler  head 
should  preferably  be  on  dry-pipe  system;  otherwise  no  alarm  will  be 
received  upon  operation  of  this  head. 

(k)  Examine  latches,  springs,  and  condilion  of  seat,  where  possible,  making 
sure  of  operative  condition. 

Inspector  should  become  thoroughly-  familiar  'H'ith  the  design 
and  methods  of  operating  various  types  of  mechanical  and  differential 
dry-pipe  valves  before  attempting  to  test  them.  See  that  tests,*  if  ne- 
cessary during  cold  -H'eather,  do  not  result  in  M^ater  being  left  in 
riser  or  piping.     It  may  freeze  and  cause  damage. 


6.    ALARM   VALVES   TO   AUTOMATIC 
SPRINKLER   SYSTEMS 

The  value  of  a  reliable  sprinkler  alarm  cannot  be  over- 
estimated, and  every  automatic  sprinkler  system,  either  wet  or  dry, 
should  contain  an  alarm  valve  connection  or  valves  so  constructed 
and  arranged  that  any  flow  of  water  through  j;he  system  will  oper- 
ate an  electric  or  mechanical  gong,  or  both.  It  may  become  neces- 
sary to  call  in  human  aid  to  complete  the  work  of  extinguishment. 
An  alarm  valve  will  also  give  notice  in  event  of  leakage  or  break 
in  the  system,  thus  saving  water  damage.  An  alarm  valve  equip- 
ment should  be  made  an  absolute  requirement. 

(a)  Type. 

Devices  in  which  portions  of  the  mechanism  are  liable  to  stick  or  otherwise 
become  deranged,  which  may  retard  the  flow  of  water  through  the  valve, 
give  false  alarms,  lack  sensitiveness,  etc.,  are  objectionable. 

(b)  Dry-Pipe  Valve  Alarms.    These  should  have  both  electrical  and  water 

motor  connections  or  alarms.  If  system  is  allowed  to  remain  wet  a  por- 
tion of  the  year,  the  alarm  feature  may  be  lost  during  that  time  if  connected 
to  the  dry  valve  proper.  An  independent  water  flow  alarm  below  the  dry 
valve  is  believed  to  be  superior  to  one  attached  to  it. 

(c)  Tests.     Test  wet-pipe  system  by  opening  test  pipe  at  top  of  riser,  and  note 

whether  gong  or  gongs  are  operating. 
Dry  valves  should  be  fitted  with  a  by-pass  to  enable  circuit  closing  device  to 
be  tested  without  tripping  valve. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  149 

(d)  Gon^s.    Note  location,  condition,  and  strength  of  electric  and  mechanically 

operated  gongs. 

See  that  source  of  current  supply  for  electric  gongs  is  ample  and  reliable. 

Make  certain  that  water  motor  and  gong  striking  mechanism  is  in  good  con- 
dition, and  that  it  operates  readily. 

See  that  exterior  gongs  are  protected  against  the  weather,  and  against  birds 
and  insects. 

(e)  Wiring.    Carefully  observe  all  wiring  in  connection  with  alarm  system  to 

see  that  it  is  properly  installed  and  not  subject  to  mechanical  injury.    (See 
Section  on  Signaling  Systems.) 

Before  testinil  an  alarm  sysiem,  be  sure  that  the  same  is  not  con- 
nected \o  a  central  station  or  to  the  public  fire  department.  If  so  con- 
nected, proper  notification  should  be  i^iven  before  test  is  made. 

This  M^ill  also  apply  to  local  alarms  >v^here  there  is  daniler  of  ex> 
citinil  employees. 


7.    UNDERGROUND   PIPES 

Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction  should  have  a 
complete  lay-out  plan  of  entire  underground  piping  system,  as 
originally  installed.  This  plan  should  be  accurately  drawn  to 
scale  (generally  fifty  feet  equals  one  inch) ,  and  should  show  water 
supplies,  valves,  hydrants,  all  pipe  sizes,  special  fittings,  etc.  Any 
and  all  changes  in,  or  additions  to  the  system,  should  be  carefully 
and  accurately  noted  on  plan  from  time  to  time.  It  is  essential 
that  copies  of  this  plan  be  displayed  conspicuously  in  various  por- 
tions of  the  property  (such  as  the  office,  engine  room  or  gate 
house),  so  that  the  extent,  purposes  and  means  of  control  of  the 
system  may  be  thoroughly  understood. 

Changes  should  not  be  made  without  the  knowledge  and  con- 
sent of  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction,  and  noti- 
fication should  always  be  given  the  Inspection  Department  when 
it  becomes  necessary  to  shut  off  the  water.  (Conditions  can  be 
anticipated  and  reasonable  advance  notification  given,  except  in 
case  of  emergencies,  which  necessitate  immediate  repairs.) 

Inasmuch  as  the  underground  system  is  necessarily  not  subject 
to  visual  inspection  after  installation,  the  utmost  care  should  be 
taken  at  time  of  installation.  Features  especially  to  be  observed 
include  quality  of  pipe  installed,  depth,  location,  caulking  of  joints 
and  workmanship, 
(a)     Any  leaks  in  the  piping  should  be  immediately  repaired. 


150  FIELD    PRACTICE 

(b)  Tests   may  he  made  at  a  hydrostatic   pressure  about  one-half   greater  than 

would  be  anticipated  at  time  of  fire  (ordinarily  200  lbs.  test  is  satisfactory) 
in  order  to  determine  the  presence  of  leaks  or  service  connections.  It  is 
advisable,  when  possible,  to  make  such  tests  before  the  piping  is  covered 
up.  Furthermore,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  put  excess  pressures  on  old 
systems  when  testing  new  work.  (Pressure  may  be  applied  exclusively 
to  new  work  by  the  use  of  a  hand  pump.) 

Undue  moisture  on  ground  surface  often  indicates  the  exist- 
ence of  leaks.  Connections  from  fire  protectiv^e  systems  for  service 
or  domestic  services  are  objectionable  and  are  ordinarily-  not  per- 
mitted. 

(c)  Tests  may  be  made  at  convenient  intervals  by  flushing  through  hydrants  or 

other  hose  connections,  in  order  to  determine  that  the  underground  piping 
is  free  from  obstructions. 

Aside  from  the  above  there  is  little  that  can  be  done  bj 
waj  of  reinspecting  underground  piping.  However,  changes  or 
additions  are  commonlj  made  from  time  to  time  in  practically 
all  systems.  As  the  same  essential  procedure  is  necessary  to 
insure  the  proper  installation  of  additions  or  extensions  to 
existing  piping  systems,  as  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  an  original 
installation,  the  following  points  should  be  carefully  observed  : — 

(d)  All  underground  mains  should  be  of  best  quality  cast  iron,  with  bell  and 

spigot  ends,  of  proper  sizes  and  laid  approximately  as  indicated  on  the 
layout  plan  submitted  by  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction. 

P^o  pipe  smaller  than  6  inches  in  diameter  should  be  installed 
underground. 

(e)  Cast-iron  piping   (where   normal  pressures   do  not  exceed  125  lbs.)  should 

comply  with  the  standard  specifications  of  the  American  Waterworks  As- 
sociation for  Class  "  C  "  pipe,  adopted  May  12,  1908:— 

Size  of  Pipe  Weight 

6  inches  35.8  pounds  per  ft. 

8  inches  52.1  pounds     " 

10  inches  70.8  pounds     " 

12  inches  91.7  pounds     " 

14  inches  116.7  pounds     '* 

16  inches  143.8  pounds     " 

A  written  certificate  should  be  required  from  the  pipe  manufacturers  to 
the  effect  that  all  piping  furnished  complies  with  the  specifications. 
Where  higher  normal  pressures  are  encountered  heavier  piping  should  be 
required.  Suction  pipes  for  pumps  may  be  lighter,  also  pipe  near  reser- 
voirs where  the  pressure  is  light. 

(f)  All  piping  should  be  rejected  when  walls  are  uneven  and/or  when  weights 

are  more  than  5  per  cent  less  than  standard. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  151 

(K)     Piping  should  have  carefully  leaded   joints,  and  be  laid   to  hear  on  entire 
lenjfth  and  deej)  cnouj^h  to  be  out  of   reach  of   frost.     Sand  and  |< ravel 
should   be  well   tamped   under  and   around  pipes,     I^ight  gravelly  soils 
permit  cold   to  go  to  a  greater  depth  than  do  wet,  heavy  soils.     (Extra 
depth  is  required  because  there  is  usually  no  circulation  in  a  fire  system.) 
If   soil   in    of  a   (iiiicksand  nature   it   may  be    necessary    to    sup- 
port the  pipiuit  on  piers.     Do  not  bury  pipinil  in  ashes. 
(h)     As  few  changes  of  grade  and  direction  should  be  made  as  possible,  and  these 
should  be  eflected  by  special  fittings  and  not  by  shifting  the  piping  in  the 
joints. 
(I)     All  elbows,  bends,  etc.,  should  be  securely  braced  and  clamped. 

Underilround  pipe  extendinii  under  railroad  tracks  requires 
special  supports  and  reinforcement  at  Joints. 

(j)     Care  must  be  taken  in  laying,  that  piping  is  kept  clean  inside  and  free  from 

stones,  grit,   dirt,   workmen's    clothes   or  tools,  and    ail    other    foreign 

materials. 

Each   length  of  pipe   and  fittinil  should  be  examined  inside  and 

lliven  a  hammer  test  before  layinil«  and  system  should  be  thorouilhly 

flushed  out  throut^h  the  hydrants  after  completion. 

(k)     All  joints  should  be  properly  leaded  with  soft  pig  lead,  only  plain  jute  pack- 
ing or  oakum  to  be  used  and  in  the  smallest  quantities  necessary  to  stop 
the    lead.      Each    joint  should    be  properly  caulked   in  a  workmanlike 
manner. 
(1)     All  new  extensions  to  original  systems  should  be  subjected  to  a  hydrostatic 
pressure  of  200  lbs.  per  square  inch  or  more  (depending  on  local  condi- 
tions) for  a  period  of  two  hours,  and  the  system  should  not  be  considered 
acceptably  tight  ualess  this  pressure  can  be  maintained  practically  con- 
stant without  pumping.    At  the  close  of  this  test,  valves  and  hydrants 
should  be  opened  and  closed  to  develop  water  hammer,  such  as  may  be 
reasonably  expected  at  time  of  fire. 
Only  occasionally  M'^ill  conditions  be  encountered  >v^hich  necessi- 
tate a  higher  test  pressure  than  200  lbs.     When  the  static  or  special 
fire  pressure  is  above  100  lbs.,  the  test  pressure  applied  should  ex- 
ceed  such  static  or  special  fire  pressure   by  about  50  lbs.,  but  in  all 
such  cases  specific  advices  should  be  obtained  from  the  Inspection 
Department  having  Jurisdiction. 

8.     WATER  SUPPLIES  TO  AUTOMATIC 
SPRINKLER   SYSTEMS 

A.     PUBLIC    WATER    SUPPLIES 

The  efficiency  of  any  source  of  water  supply  depends 
entirely  upon  its  reliability  to  furnish  an  adequate  volume  of 
water  with  satisfactory  pressure  at  all  times  and  under  all  con- 
ditions that  may  arise. 


152  FIELD     PRACTICE 

The  various  public  waterworks  systems  are  as  follows  : — 

(a)  Gravity,  with  an  effective  head  and  vohime  at  hydrants, 

(b)  Hydraulic  power  pumps  in  duplicate,  with  auxiliary  storage  reservoir. 

(c)  Steam  power  pumps  in  duplicate,  with  standpipe  or  storage  reservoir. 

(d)  Direct  pressure  supply  from  hydraulic  power  pumps  in  duplicate,  without 

standpipe  or  storage  reservoir. 

(e)  Direct  pressure  supply  from  steam  power  pumps  in  duplicate,  without  stand- 

pipe  or  storage  reservoir. 

(f)  Direct  pressure  supply  from  electric  power  installations. 


1.  GRAVITY. 

Thwnost  simple  and  reliable  source  of  supply  for  all  purposes 
is  from  town  or  city  gravity  waterworks  system,  provided  the 
reservoir  is  of  ample  capacity  to  furnish  water  for  several  days' 
ordinary  consumption.  This  reservoir  should  be  located  near  the 
distribution  center  at  an  elevation  of  at  least  two  hundred  feet 
above  the  higher  street  levels,  and  be  fed  by  unfailing  streams, 
springs  or  duplicate  pumping  engines.  The  delivery  mains  and 
distribution  system  should  be  of  adequate  size  and  well  arranged 
for  continuous  service,  and  the  water  pressure  suflficient  to  give  not 
less  than  forty  pounds  per  square  inch  at  the  upper  stories  of  build- 
ings,— say  six  stories  in  height, — at  all  times  under  normal  con- 
ditions. Such  supplies  usually  have  the  advantage  of  constant 
supervision  of  corporation  or  municipal  authorities.  Under  such 
conditions  of  water  supply  automatic  sprinkler  systems  may  be 
expected  to  reach  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency,  and  reliance  can 
be  placed  upon  effective  service  from  either  public  or  private  hose 
streams. 

2.  GRAVITY     SYSTEM    WITH    CONTINUOUS     PUMPING 

AND  AUXILIARY  STORAGE. 

In  the  absence  of  a  gravity  reservoir  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
supply  the  ordinary  consumption  of  water  during  a  period  of  one 
week  without  replenishing,  a  combination  of  gravity  and  direct 
pressure  pumpage  systems  will,  under  all  ordinary  conditions  of 
service,  give  results  that  are  perfectly  satisfactory,  provided  the 
pumping  facilities  are  in  duplicate,  and  the  reservoir  or  standpipe 
is  of  sufficient  capacity  to  supply  the  ordinary  demand  during  periods 
of  two  or  three  days,  while  there  may  be  a  temporary  reduction  in 
the  initial  source  of  supply  due  to  drought,  etc.     Pumping  engines, 


FIELD     PRACTICE  153 

driven  by  hydraulic  power,  are  dependent,  of  course,  upon  flowing 
streams,  and  in  long  continued  dry  weather  there  may  be  serious 
interruption  to  the  normal  flow  for  power  purposes,  with  consequent 
diminution  of  the  service  supply. 

3.  DIRECT  PRESSURE  SUPPLY. 

Direct  pressure  hydraulic  or  steam  power  pumping  systems 
supplied  by  separate  units  in  well-arranged  stations  of  fire-resistive 
construction;  boilers  in  separate  buildings;  facilities  for  storage  of 
coal  supply  for  at  least  one  month;  with  force  mains  in  duplicate, 
are  considered  fairly  satisfactory,  but  there  is  the  ever-present  danger 
of  interruption  to  service  due  to  breakdowns  of  turbines,  boilers, 
engines,  etc.  The  electric  power  pumping  station  is  subject  to 
the  same  interference  with  regular  service  as  the  steam  power  station, 
in  addition  to  the  various  difHculties  that  may  occur  through 
electrical  disturbances. 

All  of  the  foregoing  will  apply  as  well,  in  proportion,  to  private  installation 
for  the  fire  protection  of  large  establishments. 

4.  TESTING  AND  GAUGES. 

The  inspector  should  be  provided  with  an  accurate  pressure 
gauge  graduated  from  0  to  200  pounds,  also  several  small  brass 
bushings  of  various  sizes,  so  that  connections  can  be  made  with 
outlets  from  one-fourth  inch  to  one  and  one-half  inches,  for 
purposes  of  comparison  with  gauges  permanently  attached.  Com- 
bination pressure  and  altitude  gauges  may  be  useful  in  many 
instances.  A  tapered  rubber  plug  or  large  stopper  with  metal  tube 
through  center  for  gauge  connection  may  be  inserted  in  the  nozzle 
of  a  play  pipe  or  other  smooth  outlet  in  the  absence  of  a  threaded 
connection. 

A  gauge  with  Pitot  tube  attachment  is  recommended  to  be  used 
in  all  water  flow  tests  from  hose  nozzles.  (See  booklet.  Fire 
Engine  Tests  a7id  Fire  Stream  Tables^  published  by  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.) 

(a)  Note  the  pressure  indicated  by  gauge  if  there  is  one  permanently  attached  to 

the  system. 

(b)  Open  main  drain  valve  or  other  outlet  and  allow  full   flow  of  water  for  at 

least  two   minutes;   tap  the   gauge   lightly  and  observe  any  movement  of 
the  gauge  pointer.    Note  the  flowing  pressure  with  outlet  Avide  open. 


154  FIELD    PRACTICE 

(c)  Close  the  outlet  and  again  note  the  pressure  indicated. 

(d)  Attach  inspector's  gauge   and   note   pres>ure  recorded  in  comparison  with 

that  indicated  by  permanent  gauge.  If  the  gauge  is  attached  at  the  lower 
level  of  the  system,  the  pressure  at  the  upper  level  can  be  approximated  by 
deducting  0.43  pounds  for  each  foot  of  elevation  above  the  position  of 
gauge. 

The  water  flow  from  an  open  outlet  with  reduction  in  pressure  and 
subsequent  recovery  upon  closing  the  outlet,  will  serve  as  a  partial  test  as 
to  the  water  supply  being  fully  turned  on ;  it  will  also  indicate  any  unusual 
obstruction  in  the  piping.  In  making  waterflow  tests  on  sprinkler  equip- 
ments, test  the  flow  from  main  drain  pipe  in  each  sprinklered  building. 

This  flo^v-in^  pressure  test  is  greatly  increased  in  ^alue  if  a 
gauge  connection  is  provided  in  riser,  opposite  drain  valve,  so  that 
inspector's  gauge  can  be  attached  and  comparative  pressure  readings 
taken  at  succeeding  inspections.  For  instance,  if  the  normal  static 
pressure  is  50  lbs.,  and  upon  opening  valve  pressure  normally  drops 
to  4S  lbs.,  it  Mi'ill  be  apparent  if  the  pressure  drops  at  some  inspec- 
tion to  (say)  35  lbs.  (or  under),  that  there  must  be  some  obstruction 
to  the  flow  which  should  be  removed.  Make  due  allow^ance  as  to  the 
location  of  the  gauge.  The  further  from  the  test  pipe  it  is  located  the 
greater  w^ill  be  the  floor  pressure  observed. 

Systems  equipped  w^ith  supervisory  or  Central  Station 
Alarm  Service  should  not  be  tested  ^v^ithout  first  obtaining 
special  permission  from  supervising. off  ice. 

(e)     Make  record  of  test  with  date,  for  reference  at  future  inspections. 


B.    PRIVATE  WATER  SUPPLIES 

1.    FIRE  PUMPS. 

Steam,  electric  and  hydraulic  pumps  for  fire  protection,  in 
common  with  other  important  devices  upon  which  dependence 
must  be  placed,  must  be  of  satisfactory  design,  safely  installed, 
and  subjected  to  at  least  weekly  operating  tests. 

At  least  two  active  employees  at  each  plant  maintaining  a 
fire  pump  should  be  familiar  with  its  mechanical  and  automatic 
contrivances,  and  capable  of  operating  it. 

The  boiler,  dynamo,  motor  or  water  wheel  from  which 
power  is  derived,  as  well  as  the  source  of  suction  supply,  should 
be  subject  to  careful  scrutiny. 

The  mere  fact  that  there  is  a  fire  pump  on  the  premises  does 
not  guarantee  that   it   will  always  work.     A  careful  examination 


FIELD     PRACTICE  155 

of   all    the  factors  entering  should   be   followed   by  an  adequate 
operating  test.     Records  of  this  should  be  filed. 

A.     Steam  Fire  Pumps.     (Sec  also  Sleam  Boilers.) 

(a)  Design.     Should  be  Standard.    "  Trade  "  pumps,  especially  if  of  old  design, 

frequently  are  unable  to  meet  demands  of  fire  service. 

(b)  Location.     Pumps  should  preferably  be  located  in  fireproof  room,  as  near  to 

boiler  as  possible,  cut  off  from  rest  of  plant  and  accessible  from  outside. 
An  unexposed  separate  building  for  pump  and  boiler  is  preferred  (one 
watchman  cannot  run  pump  and  fires  if  pump  is  away  from  the  boilers, 
and  a  long  steam  line  is  subject  to  injury). 

(c)  Maintenance.     Pump  should  be  always  in  the  best  of  condition,  ready  for 

instant   service.      Tests  will   usually  develop   defects.      Leaking   valves, 
defective  packing,  worn  piston  rods,  etc.,  are  frequent  defects. 
(dj     Steam  Supply*     Steam  supply  should  be  examined  with  a  view  to  the  fol- 
lowing:— 
( See  also  Steam  Boilers.) 

( 1 )  Steam  main  or  mains  should  be  run  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be 

free  from  possible  damaiie  through  burninil  of  buildini^s  and 
falling  of  avails. 

(2)  Mains  should  be  run  as  direct  as  possible.     Throttle  valTe 

should  be  of  globe  pattern  and  should  al'H^ays  be  in  horizon- 
tal pipe. 

(3)  Main  should  be  an  independent  line  from  header  on  boiler. 

(4)  All  other  connections  in  boiler  house  should  have  valves  in 

boiler  house,  so  as  to  concentrate  the  supply  to  pump. 

(5)  If  supplied  by  i-wo  lines,  each  line  should  be  valved  in  boiler 

house,  and  also  in  pump  room. 

(6)  Steam  line  should  be  properly  trapped  so  as  to  take  care  of 

condensation,  and  so  installed  as  to  take  care  of  expansion 
and  contraction. 

(7)  Minimum  steam  pressure  of  50  lbs.  should  be  maintained  at 

all  times. 

(8)  Recordinj^  steam  gauge  preferably  should  be  provided,  to  be 

carefully  examined,  and  dials  to  be  filed  daily. 

(e)  Cylinder   Cocks.     These   cocks,  on  bottom  of   steam  cylinders,  must  be 

kept  open  so  as  to  relieve  cylinders  from  condensation,  and  they  should 
discharge  into  open  cups  connected  with  sewer. 

(f)  Suction  Connection.     Pump  taking  water  under  head  must  have  indicator 

or  O.  S.  and  Y.  valve  in  each  suction  supply.  Where  pump  takes  suction 
under  lift,  a  foot  valve  may  be  supplied  where  lift  approximates  fifteen 
feet  or  where  suction  pipe  is  long.  Strainers  are  generally  needed  where 
suction  is  taken  from  reservoir  or  stream.  Orifice  of  strainers  should  be 
ten  times  the  area  of  suction  pipe. 


156  FIELD     PRACTICE 

(g)  Priming  Tank.  This  must  be  provided  where  pumps  take  suction  under 
a  lift,  unless  there  is  another  reliable  source  of  water  supply.  A  priming-  tank 
should  have  a  capacity  of  not  less  than  one-half  of  the  rated  capacity  of 
pump. 

(h)  Reservoir.  If  reservoir  is  provided  with  automatic  fill  connection,  its 
efficiency  should  be  tested  by  drawing  water  from  reservoir. 

(i)  Discharge  Connection.  Gate  valve  in  the  discharge  line  must  be  open 
at  all  times. 

(j)      Care  and  Tests.     The  following  is  suggested  : — 

(1)  Pump  room  should  be  kept  clean,  heated,  and  ivell  lighted 

(2)  Pump  io  be  kept  ■w^ell  lubricated  at  all  times. 

(3)  Ample  supply  of  oils  to  be  kept  in  pump  room,  in  metal  cans, 

'H'ith  drip  pans. 

(4)  Pump  to  be  run  at  least  once  a  ^iveek,  for  a  period  of  several 

minutes,  preferably  at  full  capacity. 

(5)  See  if  relief  valve  is  properly  adjusted. 

(6)  At   each    inspection    run    the  pump  and  discharge   through 

relief  valve. 
(k)     Automatic  Regulator.     If    provided,    automatic    regulator    should    be 
adjusted  to  maintain  a  pressure  of  seventy-five  pounds  at  the  ground  level, 
plus  any  additional  pressure  which  may  be  required  to  maintain  twenty- 
five  pounds  pressure  upon  highest  sprinklers  in  sprinklered  properties. 
Automatic  regulator  should  be  of  approved  type.     Many  no>v  in 
use  are  poorly  designed. 

Regulator  should  be  tested,  and  required  to  maintain  the  desired 
-Heater  pressure  (within  lO  per  cent)  at  any  speed  of  pump  from  zero 
to  full  speed. 

Regulator  should  alivays  be  placed  on  by-pass,  having  valve 
above  and  below^  to  permit  of  repairs;  valve  in  addition  to  be  pro- 
vided in  main  line. 

(1)  Auxiliary  Pump.  Auxiliary  pump,  if  used  to  prevent  needless  travel  on 
the  part  of  fire  pump,  should  have  regulator  set  about  five  to  ten  pounds 
higher  than  regulator  on  fire  pump.  Auxiliary  pump  should  be  of 
approved  type,  and  not  less  in  size  than  7x3x6  inches. 


Steam  Boilers.     (/«  connection  with  Fire  Pumps') 

(See also  Fire  Pumps.) 

The  proper  maintenance  and  safeguarding  of  a  boiler  plant 
upon  which  one  or  more  fire  pumps  are  dependent  for  steam 
supply  is  most  important,  else  it  may  not  be  possible  to  operate 
the  pumps  at  the  time  most  needed. 

(a)     See  that  a  steam   pressure   of  at  least   50   lbs.  is  constantly  maintained  in 
sufficient  volume  to  operate  pumps  to  full  capacity  on  short  notice. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  157 

A  steam  preasnre  rerordinil  ilauile  is  jlenerally  required,  and  the 
rerords  sliould  be  examined  to  make  sure  that  steam  pressure  has 
been  maintained  properly  since  last  inspection. 

(b)  Observe  if  there  is  suflicient  reserve  supply  of  fuel  on  hand.    Do  not  permit 

coal  to  be  stacked  against  boiler  walls,  nor  stored  in  bins  of  combustible 

material. 
In  some  oases  'where  there  are  no  facilities  for  maintaininit  a 
lar^e  reserve  supply  of  coal  the  supply  may  be  replenished  daily,  but 
inquiry  should  always  be  made  as  to  exact  conditions  applying  and 
in  no  case  should  there  be  less  than  forty-eiiiht  hours*  supply  on 
hand. 

(c)  Observe  if  the  Korse  power  of  boilers  on  which  steam  is  maintained  is  suffi- 

cient to  operate  all  fire  pumps  on  premises  to  full  capacity. 

Forty  h.  p.  should  be  maintained  for  each  250  ^als.  per  minute 
of  pumping  capacity,  but  in  no  case  should  a  boiler  of  less  than  lOO 
h.  p.  be  provided  for  a  500-ital.  pump.  There  should  always  be  at 
least  two  boilers. 

(d)  See  that  steam  piping  in  boiler  house  is  so  arranged  that  any  one  or  all 

boilers  may  be  reserved  exclusively  for  fire  pump  supply. 

Valves  in  fire  pump  steam  supply  pipes  should  be  kept  open  at 
all  times  with  steam  up  to  throttle  valves  on  pump. 

(e)  See  that  proper  facilities  have  been  provided  for  feeding  water  to  boilers. 

A  2,"  pipe  from  the  fire  pump  should  be  connected  to  feed  boilers, 
in  addition  to  the  regular  boiler  feed  (which  may  be  injectors,  service 
pumps,  city  water,  etc.). 

(f)  Ascertain  if  boilers  are  kept  under  regular  inspection  by  the  State  and  /  or  a 

reliable  boiler  insurance  company.    Ascertain  highest  pressure  allowed 
by  said  authorities  and  note  if  such  pressures  are  being  exceeded. 

(g)  Note  if  boiler  room  and  fire  pumps  are  properly  cut  off  from  remainder  of 

property  and  free  from  probable  interference  by  lire. 

(h)  Observe  boiler  setting,  and  see  that  there  is  sufficient  clearance  between  tops 
and  sides  of  boilers  and  woodwork ;  also  if  flues  and  stacks  are  properly 
insulated  from  roof  or  walls.  ( See  Section  Sieam  Boilers  under  Power 
Hazards.) 

(!)  Floods  and  high  water  should  be  guarded  against  in  locating  boiler  house 
and  setting  of  pumps  and  boilers.  While  this  may  be  impossible  in  some 
instances,  yet  floods  have  demonstrated  the  advisability  of  guarding 
against  disability  of  boilers  and  pumps  from  high  water. 


B.     Electrically  Driven  Fire  Pumps. 

Note. — Motor  driven  fire  pumps  are  principally  of  the  rotary 
cam  and  centrifugal  types.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  sug- 
gestions pertaining  to  steam   fire  pumps,  applies   to  electric   fire 


158  FIELD    PRACTICE 

pumps    also.       In    addition,    the    following   features    should    be 
investigated :  — 

(a)  Priming.     Centrifugal    pumps    are    difficult    to     start    unless    thoroughly 

primed.  Where  possible  centrifugal  pump  should  take  suction  under  a 
head;  gate  valve  in  suction  line  should  be  kept  open.  Where  water  is 
lifted  and  priming  tank  is  kept  automatically  filled,  the  priming  connection 
should  be  normally  open. 

(b)  Controlling    Apparatus.     Automatic     regulator    and    other    controlling 

devices  must  bh  kept  in  proper  working  order. 

(c)  Protection  of  Electrical  Apparatus.    This  must  be  protected  against 

leakage  from  pump.     Sheet  metal  shields  are  advised. 

(d)  Current  Supply.    This  is  of  primary  importance.    If  possible,  there  should 

be  two  independent  sources  of  supply. 

Circuits  to  pump  should  be  so  run  as  to  be  protected  against  fire  and 
collapsing  buildings.  If  possible,  they  should  be  underground.  If  alter, 
nating  current  is  used,  note  if  transformers  are  in  a  fireproof  vault.  See 
if  a  circuit  breaker  is  used  in  motor  leads. 

If  other  portions  of  plant  take  current  from  same  source  as  fire  pump,  it 
should  be  possible  to  cut  off  these  connections  in  the  pump  room  itself, 
or  at  some  other  safe  point. 


C     Rotary  Pumps. 

Note. — These  are  used  primarily  with  water  wheels  and  are 
not  recommended  where  other  types  can  be  installed. 

(a)  Source  of  PoM^er.  Capacity  and  condition  of  electric  power,  water  wheel, 
reliability  of  water  supply,  driving  mechanism,  etc.,  should  be  carefully 
examined.     If  electric  power,  35  to  40  h.  p.  per  fire  stream  is  required. 

fb)  Tests  of  Pumps.  It  is  especially  desirable  to  run  pumps  for  a  considerable 
period  of  time  and  to  determine  discharge  capacity. 

(c)  Inspection  of  Pumps.     Common  defects  are  rusting  of  pump,  breaking 

of  buckets,  broken  driving  gears,  etc. 

(d)  Location  of  Pumps.     Pumps  are  frequently  in  basements  or  other  out-of 

the  way  points,  where  access  at  time   of  fire  might    be  diflScult  if  not 
impossible. 

(e)  There  should  be  enough  lubricant  on  hand  to  run  pump  for  several  hours. 

(f)  Test  the  same  as  steam  pumps. 

2.    GRAVITY  TANKS. 

Responsibility  for  the  upkeep,  care  and  maintenance  of 
gravity  tanks  must  rest  upon  the  owner.  Where  exposed  severely 
to  changeable  weather,  tanks  require  frequent  inspection.  The 
failure   periodically   to    inspect   tanks   and    structures,    not   only 


FIELD     PRACTICE  loU 

creates  danger  of  loss  of  life  by  collapse  (or  otherwise)  but  such 
collapse  or  failure  of  tank  or  structure  might  entirely  cripple  a 
sprinkler  installation,  and  entail  a  great  property  loss. 

(a)  Observe  foundation,  tower  or  structure  supporting  tank,  noting  any  evidence 

of  weakness  or  sagging  of  same  from  original  construction. 

(b)  Steel    or  wood   structures  must  be  kept  thoroughly  painted.     If  steel  struc- 

ture, note  if  it  is  riveted  together,  or  bolted,  and  if  heads  of  bolts  are  bat- 
tered, and  if  uprights  are  securely  fastened  to  foundations.  See  that 
bolts  are  not  loose.  (Bolted  trestles  are  not  standard.  Parts  should  be 
riveted.) 

(c)  All  tanks  must  have  a  substantial  platform  (at  base  of  tank)  surrounded  by  a 

railing. 

(d)  Steel  trestle    work  where  inside  of  building  and  passing  through    floors 

should  be  well  insulated,  all  metal  to  be  covered  with  at  least  a  2  inch 
thickness  of  approved  fireproofing.  Special  attention  is  called  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  safeguarding  against  corrosion  at  the  point  where  steel  sup- 
ports may  pass  through  roof. 

(e)  Tank   to  be   of   size  to  contain   required  capacity   for  fire   system.     Water 

supply  therein  should  supply  fire  system  only.  Special  permission  must 
be  obtained  in  instances  where  outlets  are  provided  for  other  domestic 
use. 

(f)  Note  whether  water  contains  sediment.    Sediment  in  tank  should  be  removed, 

as  accumulations  are  liable  eventually  to  clog  sprinkler  pipes. 
A  record  should  be  kept  of  date  when   tank   is  cleaned.    Tank    should  be 
cleaned  out  at  regular  intervals — at  least  annually. 

(g)  There  must  be  a  substantial  permanent  ladder  or  stairway  provided,  in  order 

to  give  easy  access  to  and  about  tank. 

(h)  If  tank  is  exposed  to  weather,  a  suitable  cover  must  be  provided.  If  of  wood, 
to  be  double,  with  air  space  between.  All  joints  to  be  tight,  especially 
where  cover  rests  on  top  of  staves.  If  of  steel  or  concrete,  cover  to  be  of 
similar  construction  to  sides  of  tank  and  of  sufficient  thickness  to  give 
proper  stability.  Note  if  proper  trap  door,  at  least  20  x  26  inches,  is  pro- 
vided in  cover  and  is  in  good  working  order. 

(1)  Find  out  if  discharge  pipe  extends  proper  distance  above  bottom  of  tank  on 
inside;  it  should  extend  up  at  least  4  inches  in  flat  bottom  tanks,  and  at 
least  18  inches  in  tanks  having  a  conical  or  oval  shaped  bottom. 

(j)  Observe  if  there  is  an  expansion  joint  in  vertical  pipe  leading  to  tank,  or  a 
swing  joint  for  tank  located  over  building. 

(k)  Discharge  pipe  should  never  be  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  never 
less  than  size  of  largest  sprinkler  riser. 

(1)  Note  that  piping  to  and  from  tank,  if  exposed  to  weather,  is  well  protected 
against  freezing.     ( See  Gravity  Tank  Pamphlet.) 

(m)  Ascertain  if  tank  and  tank  riser  are  provided  with  proper  heating  arrange- 
ments to  prevent  freezing;  also  if  heating  apparatus  is  reliable  at  all  times. 
(See  Gravity  Tank  Pamphlet  for  the  various  methods  employed.)  Hot 
water  circulation  is  most  reliable  and  economical.  This  plan  is  recom- 
mended  above  all  others. 


160  FIELD    PRACTICE 

(n)     Note  if  tank  has  proper  overflow  pipe  near  the  top,  with  proper  discharge. 

It  is  necessary  to  fill  the  tank  to  point  of  overflow,  and  observe  discharge, 
(o)     Note  size  and  location  of  filling  pipe,  the  same  to  be  not  less  than  1^  inches 

in  diameter,  and  to  discharge  at  top  of  tank  above  water  level.     If  filled  by 

a  by-pass  around  check  valve,  the  same  should  contain  a  gate  valve,  to  be 

kept  closed  at  all  times  except  when  in  actual  use. 
(p)     Each  tank  should  have  drain  independent  of  olher  tanks  and  of  sprinkler 

systems, 
(q)     Each  tank  should  have  telltale  device,  either  an  approved  indicator,  mercury 

gauge,  or  float  telltale.     Some  means  of  indicating  the  height  of  water  in 

feet  in  tank  is  essential.     Inspector  must  see  for  himself  the  water  level  in 

tank  as  indicating  devices  sometimes  fail.     Inspector  should  overflow  tank 

in  case  it  cannot  be  thoroughly  inspected, 
(r)     Note  if  wooden  tank  or  tower  is  equipped  with  approved  lightning  rods, 
(s)     Carefully  note  the  condition  of  tank.    If  of  wood,  observe  if  free  from  rot, 

and  if  staves  and  other  parts  are  free  from  leak  and  in  good  condition.    Note 

carefully  the  condition  of  hoops,  lugs  and  supports. 

Ronnd  hoops  only-  are  reliable  for  long  service.  Flat  hoops 
should  be  replaced  at  once — they  rust  readily,  especially  if  located  in 
enclosed  to>v^ers  or  rooms. 

(t)  Observe  if  the  necessary  gate  and  check  valves  are  properly  installed  in  tank 
drop  pipe,  and  protected  against  freezing,  but  accessible. 

(u)  Other  details  relating  to  the  installation  of  Gravity  Tanks  will  be  found  in 
pamphlet  on  Gravity  Tanks. 


3.    PRESSURE  TANKS. 

The  air  pressure  tank  forms  a  generally  reliable  source  of 
automatic  water  supply,  and  while  the  supply  is  of  limited 
capacity,  an  advantage  is  obtained  by  the  heavy  initial  discharge 
making  sprinklers  more  effective  than  with  the  pressures 
ordinarily  available. 

Pressure  tanks,  however,  are  not  desirable  for  dry  pipe  sys- 
tems on  account  of  lack  of  capacity  to  fill  system  and  hold 
reserve. 

From  the  N.  F.  P.  A.  records  it  appears  that  the  greater 
number  of  fires  satisfactorily  controlled  by  sprinklers  have  been 
in  plants  with  primary  supply  from  public  waterworks  systems 
and  private  gravity  tanks ;  but  statistics  show  that  in  a  large 
number  of  instances  specially  tabulated,  where  fires  were 
either  extinguished  or  practically  extinguished,  the  pressure 
tank  has  shown  an  efficiency  of  83%,  as  compared  with  69%  for 
automatic    pumps,    67%    for   public   waterworks,    and    59%    for 


FIELD     PRACTICE  ICl 

private  gravity  tanks.  This  apparent  superiority  of  the  pressure 
tank  supply  is  due  to  the  fact  that  pressure  tanks  were  usually 
located  in  properties  having  a  majority  of  small  (one  sprinkler) 
fires. 

(a)  Note  the  air  pressure  indicated  by  gauge  on  tank;  tap  the  gauge  lightly  to 

see  that  the  pointer  moves  freely.  Attach  inspector's  gauge  and  compare 
pressure  indicated  by  permanent  gauge.  If  gauges  indicate  low  pressure, 
require  pressure  to  be  increased  to  proper  amount.  Correct  water  level 
should  be  determined  first. 

(b)  Examine  the  dials  of  recording  gauge,  if  there  is  one  attached  to  tank. 

(C)  See  that  all  hand  valves  in  air  and  water  supply  pipes,  water-column  and 
glass  gauge  connections,  etc.,  are  properly  closed,  and  that  the  glass  gauge 
is  free  of  water. 

(d)  To  test  water  level  :— 

1.  Open  the  valves  at  top  of  colnmn  and  ^lass  ^antfe,  thns  ad- 
mitting air  pressure  to  ^lass  itaufte. 

2«  Slo^'ly  open  valves  at  bottom  of  colnmn  and  ^lass  ilanile, 
'vrhich  M'ill  allo^v^  -prater  to  rise  in  the  i^lass  and  sho>v  the 
true  level  of  >vater  in  tank.  If  the  water  is  low,  require 
tank  to  be  filled  to  two-thirds  line.  If  water  is  hii^h,  regu- 
late accordingly. 

3.  See  that  >rater  level  mark  and  amount  of  pressure  io  be  car> 

ried  are  prominently  marked  on  the  tank.     A  special  mark- 
ing plate  is  required. 

4.  Close   all   air  and   water  valves,  and   open   drip   cock  under 

itlass  ilau^e. 

(e)  Observe  the  general  conditions  of  upkeep  in  connection  with  the  tank  in 

reference  to  water  leaks,  discharge  outlet  valve,  drain  pipe,  tank-house 
heating  arrangements,  air  and  water  supply  pumps,  etc. 

(f)  See  that  there  is  a  pump  for  properly  filling  pressure  tank  with  water,  noting 

that  enough  pressure  is  afforded  to  pump  water  while  tank  is  under  seventy- 
five  to  eighty  pounds  pressure,  without  reducing  such  pressure.  Objections 
are  found  in  instances  where  tank  water  supply  is  furnished  direct  from  a 
weak  city  source,  which  necessitates  release  of  air  from  tank. 

(g)  Note  if  air  compressor  is  of  ample  capacity,  and  is  properly  maintained, 
(h)     It  is  good  practice  to  have  installed  on  each  air  and  filling  line  to  pressure 

tank  a  properly  located  and  adjusted  relief  valve.    Inspectors  should  ob- 
serve whether  such  valves  are  installed,  and  if  so,  see  that  they  are  prop- 
erly adjusted.; 
(See  Air  Pumps  Section.) 

4.    STEAMER    CONNECTIONS 

Steamer  connections  to  automatic  sprinkler  equipments  re- 
quire frequent  observation;  they  should  always  be  in  readiness 
for  service.     The  accidental  failure  of  other  water  supplies  would 


162  FIELD     PRACTICE 

render  the  steamer  connection  a  source  of  almost  equal  value  in 
instances  of  fire  under  headway.  (See  also  sections  on  Inside 
Stajidpipe  and  Hose  Systems  and  Open  Sprinklers,) 

(a)  Connection  pipe  should  be  designated  by  plate  "Automatic  Sprinkler  Con- 

nection  "  and  conspicuously  located  at  an  accessible  point  which  may  be 
readily  seen  by  the  Fire  Department.    The  connection  should  be  free  from 
obstructions,  giving  the  Fire  Department  direct  access  to  same. 
Standpipe    steamer  connections  (apart  from   sprinkler  system) 

are  frequently  found.     These  should  be  especially  desiijnated,  so  as 

to  avoid  any  confusion  in  instances  of  use. 

(b)  Note  whether  steamer  pipe  connection  to  underground  main  system  is  prop- 

erly located,  on  system  side  of  city  check  valve. 

(c)  It  should  be  determined  if  the  captain  and  men  at  the  nearest  fire  station 

are  familiar  with  the  location  of  connection,  if  they  fully  understand 
the  importance  of  instantly  connecting  up  to  same  upon  arrival,  and 
whether  or  not  they  will  do  so  in  case  of  fire. 

(d)  Caps  should  be  kept  over  inlets  at  all  times,  be  attached  to   the  pipes,  and 

threads  kept  well  lubricated.  Each  Siamese  intake  pipe  should  be  pro- 
vided with  proper  flapper,  check  valve,  drip  and  gaskets. 

(e)  It  is  advisable  occasionally  to  remove  the  caps  and  observe  whether  or  not 

there  are  any  stones  or  other  obstructions  inside.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  replace  caps  after  such  examinations. 


5.    AIR  PUMPS  AND    COMBINATION    AIR    COMPRESSOR 
AND  WATER   PUMPS   FOR   FILLING   PURPOSES 

In  inspecting  air  pumps  for  supplying  dry-pipe  sprinkler 
systems  and  pressure  tanks  three  types  will  be  encountered:  the 
belt  driven  pump,  the  electrically  driven  pump  and  the  steam  air 
compressor.  It  is  becoming  customary  to  have  a  combined  air 
pump  and  water  pump  connected  up  with  a  motor  for  pressure 
tank  work.  Owing  to  the  various  types  of  air  compressors  and 
water  pumps  on  the  market,  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  go 
into  detail  as  to  the  construction  of  each  type,  but  it  is  strongly 
recommended  that  the  equipment  where  a  combination  air  and 
water  pump  is  installed,  should  consist  of  a  vertical  single  acting 
triplex  water  pump  with  brass  valves  and  packing  glands,  and  a 
two  cylinder  single  acting  air  compressor,  both  to  be  driven 
through  friction  clutches  and  gears  by  an  electric  motor.  This 
equipment  should  be  properly  mounted  on  a  substantial  base, 
and  equipped  with  necessary  oil  and  grease  cups,  blow-off  valve 
and  air  chamber. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  1C3 

The  capacity  of  the  above  mentioned  combination  of  air  and 
water  pumps  depends  entirely  upon  the  number  of  dry  systems, 
pressure  and  gravity  tanks  in  use,  but  in  no  case  should  the 
capacity  be  less  than  the  following: — 

Water  Air 

Gal.  per  Min.  Cu.  Ft.  per  Min. 
35  11 

50  20 

(a)  Sec   that  pump  is  properly  connected  to  system,  and  test   same  by  turning 

the  pump  over  a  few  times  to  see  that  it  is  in  good  working  order. 

(b)  See  that  check  and  gate  valve  is  located  close  to  the  pump  for  ease  of  opera- 

tion. 

(c)  See  that  pump  is  properly  oiled,  and  that  man  in  charge  of  it  oils  the  pump 

in  the  right  way. 

(d)  Examine  the  source  of  power  and  see  that  the  belts,  steam  supply  and  elec 

trie  wiring  are  propeily  arranged. 

(e)  See  that  air  supply  is  taken  from  the  outside  or  from  a  room  having  dry  air 

and  the  intake  protected  by  a  screen. 

Providing  it  is  not  convenient  to  install  an  electrically 
driven  compressor,  a  standard  make  steam  compressor  should  be 
installed  having  the  prescribed  air  capacity,  as  the  belt  driven 
power  compressors  are  very  unsatisfactory. 


II.     FIRE    PROTECTION    IN 
GENERAL 

1.  Yard  Hydrants. 

2.  Hose  and  Equipment  for  Yard  Hydrant  Use. 

3.  Inside  Standpipes  and  Hose  Systems. 

4.  Open  Sprinklers. 

5.  Steam  Jets. 

6.  Chemical  Fire  Extinguishers. 

7.  Water  Casks  and  Pails. 

8.  Night  Watchman. 

9.  Signaling  Systems. 

10.  Care  of  Fire  Appliances  in  Winter — Cold  Weather 

Precautions. 

11.  Maintenance  of  Fire  Doors  and  Shutters. 

12.  Wired    Glass    WindoM^s    M^ith    Metal    Frame    and 

Sash. 

13.  Stairways,    Flevators    and   Vertical    Shaft   Fnclo- 

sures. 

14.  Tarpaulins  and  Blankets. 

15.  Whitew^ash  Coating  as  a  Fire  Retardant. 

16.  Fireproof  Coating  Mixtures. 

17.  Skids  and  Raised  Platforms. 

18.  Scuppers. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  167 


FIRE    PROTECTION    IN    GENERAL 

1.     YARD  HYDRANTS 

Hydrants  in  new  installations  should  conform  in  all  particu- 
lars to  standard,  with  two  or  more  2i  inch  outlets  (fitted  with 
independent  hose  gates). 

Care  should  be  taken  that  threads  on  hose  outlets  correspond 
exactly  to  the  threads  on  the  public  fire  department  hose,  or  if 
there  is  no  public  fire  department,  threads  should  correspond  to 
the  hose  couplings  at  nearest  mill. 

In  installing  new  hydrants  care  should  be  taken  that  they  are 
fastened  to  the  piping  in  a  secure  manner,  by  means  of  clamps 
attached  to  lugs  cast  on  hydrant  body.  Each  hydrant  should  be 
set  on  flat  stone  and  gravel,  and  broken  material  placed  under 
and  around  to  give  proper  drainage. 

(a)  Observe  if  any  hydrants  are  leaking,  and  if  so  require  immediate  repairs. 

(b)  See  that  hydrant  stems  and  caps  are  well  lubricated. 

(c)  See  that  the  arrow  (indicating  proper  direction  to  turn  hydrant  to  open)  is 

not  obliterated.     If  it  is,  require  a  new  arrow  to  be  painted  on. 

(d)  All  hydrants  should  be  flushed  out  thoroughly  at  least  yearly. 

(e)  To  test  hydrants  properly  attach  gauge  to  special  testing  outlet  (or  if  there 

is  no  gauge  outlet,  gauge  plug  can  be  inserted  in  a  nozzle,  and  the  gauge 
attached  to  one  outlet)  and  obtain  static  pressure  by  opening  hydrant, 
then  flowing  pressure  by  opening  one  or  more  outlets. 

(f)  Do  not  test  hydrants  in  cold  weather  by  opening  them.    There  is  too  much 

liability  of  their  draining  improperly,  and  consequent  danger  that  they 
will  freeze  after  the  test.  If  there  is  reason  to  suspect  that  hydrants 
are  not  draining  properly,  test  by  *'  sounding  "  with  the  hand  on  an  open 
outlet.    A  mild  turn  of  stem  will  furnish  any  evidence  of  frozen  conditions. 

Another  means  of  testing  is  to  lower  a  weight  into  hydrant.    The  presence 
of  ice  can  be  determined  by  the  sound,  and  water  by  the  wetting  of  the  weight. 


2.     HOSE  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  YARD  USE 

It  is  most  important  that  the  hose  and  equipment  shall  be 
properly  and  conveniently  arranged,  else  there  is  grave  danger 
of  disastrous  delay  in  getting  hose  streams  promptly  upon  a  fire. 

A  hose  house,  built  in  accordance  with  published  standard, 
is  ordinarily  required   over  each  yard    hydrant.     (In  special    in- 


168  FIELD    PRACTICE 

stances  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction  may  have 
approved  Other  conditions,  as,  for  instance,  the  location  of  a 
standard  hose  carriage  in  some  convenient  place.) 

(a)  See  that  full  complement  of  hose  and  implements  is  in  hose  houses. 

The  ordinary  equipment  for  a  hose  house  is  as  follo^vst — 
ISO  ft.  to  250  ft.  of  hose. 
2  play  pipes  iVs''  orifice. 
2  fire  axes. 
2  croM^bars. 
2  ladder  straps. 
1  lantern,  kept  filled. 
4  to  6  spanners. 
1  extra  hydrant  ^v^rench. 
Extra  ivashers  for  hose  couplini^s. 

(b)  See  that  at  least  100  feet  of  hose  is  coupled  and  attached  to  one  hydrant  out- 

let and  that  play  pipe  is  attached  to  hose,  ready  for  use  in  case  of  emer- 
gency. 

(c)  See  that  one  hydrant  wrench  is  on  hydrant  and  that  extra  wrench  is  hanging 

iri  hydrant  house. 

(d)  See  that  all  attached  hose  in  hose  house  is  neatly  folded  so  it  may  be  pulled 

out  without  twisting  or  kinking. 

(e)  See  that  reserve  hose  is  stored  on  upper  shelf,  as  shown  in  published  pam- 

phlet.    Reserve  hose  should  be  in  rolls. 

(f)  Note  size,  kind,  make  of  hose,  and  date  of  manufacture. 

(Label  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  indicates  inspection  during  manufac- 
ture.) 
(jf)    Test  hose  couplings  to  see  if  they  are  interchangeable  with  other  hose  and' 
hose   gates,  with  town   hydrants   and   hose   and  /  or  those   of  nearest 
neighbors  likely  to  give  aid. 
This  should  al-H^ays  be  done  at  time  of  installation  and  repeated 
"Mrhenever  hose  has  been  lent  to  neighbors  or  after  borroM^ed  hose  has 
been  returned. 

(h)  All  hose  should  be  tested  for  tightness  at  least  once  a  year  at  from  100  to  125 
pounds  static  pressure  (except  when  ordinary  pressure  encountered  ex- 
ceeds these  figures,  when  higher  test  pressure  is  advisable). 

(i)  Water  should  be  run  through  all  cotton  rubber  lined  hose  once  or  twice  a 
year  to  retard  deterioration  of  the  rubber  lining. 

Always  drain  all  hose  properly  and  dry  jacket  thoroughly  before 
replacing  the  hose  in  the  houses. 

(j)      Examine  hose  house  roofs  and  doors  to  make  sure  they  are  weather  tight. 

(k)     See  that  hose  houses  are  clean  and  free  from  wasps'  nests,  rubbish,  etc. 

(1)      All  precaution  possible  should  be  exercised  by  the  management  to  prevent 

theft  of  hose  house  apparatus  or  misplacement  of  same, 
(m)    See  that  hose  house  doors  open  high  enough  above  the  ground  so  they  will 

not  be  obstructed  at  any  season  of  the  year. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  169 

3.     INSIDE  STANDPIPES  AND  HOSE  SYSTEMS 

An  inside  standpipe  and  hose  system  should  furnish  a  ready 
means  for  the  control  (by  the  occupants  of  a  building)  of  incip- 
ient fires  and  also  should  be  capable  of  furnishing  high  power 
streams  of  large  calibre  such  as  are  required  by  fire  departments. 
It  is  oftentimes  the  only  way  whereby  effective  fire  streams  may 
be  provided  in  the  upper  stories  of  high  buildings. 

Such  a  system  must  be  maintained  in  perfect  working  order 
at  all  times.  Frequent  inspections  are  of  great  importance, 
especially  in  view  of  many  actual  occurrences  where  standpipe 
systems  have  been  found  useless  in  time  of  necessity,  not  alone 
because  of  deterioration  in  the  perishable  part  of  the  equipment 
(the  hose),  but  because  the  piping  was  frozen  or  choked  or 
clogged  with  refuse  or  other  foreign  material  such  as  workmen's 
clothing,  tools,  etc.,  carelessly  thrown  or  left  in  the  piping  at 
time  of  installation. 

Mere  visual  inspection  of  the  system  and  its  accessories, 
such  as  hose,  nozzles,  etc.,  will  not  suffice,  though  such  in- 
spection is  valuable  and  necessary.  In  addition  it  must  be 
determined  absolutely  that  the  water  and  the  pressure  will  be 
available  for  the  hose  lines  when  the  emergency  comes. 

For  details  of  installation  requirements  (both  for  original 
systems  and  additions  to  same),  water  supplies,  etc.,  refer  to 
pamphlet  on  Interior  Standpipe  Equipments. 

1.    HOSE  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

Hose  should  be  of  the  best  quality.  Unlined  linen  fire 
hose  is  preferable  for  inside  use. 

(Label  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  indicates  inspection  during  manufac- 
ture.) 

It  is  important  that  the  threads  on  hose  couplings  shall  be 
interchangeable  with  fire  department  hose  and /or  nearest  neigh- 
bor likely  to  aid. 

There  are  two  classes  of  standpipe  systems,  as  follows: — 

(1)  Small  connections  designed  to  control  a  fire  in  its  in- 
cipiency. 

This  class  may  further  be  subdivided  thus: — 

(a)  Small  size  standpipes  with  hose  connections  at  different  story  levels. 

(b)  Small  size  connections  to  the  sprinkler  system  proper. 


170  FIELD    PRACTICE 

(2)  Large  standpipes  with  hose  connections  (frequently  in- 
cluding roof  hydrants  or  monitor  nozzles)  designed  to  facilitate 
carrying  high  power  fire  streams  (required  during  the  more  ad- 
vanced stages  of  fire)  into  upper  stories  of  buildings,  or  to  fight 
fires  in  buildings  close  by. 

Two  hose  connections  are  frequently  found  at  hose  stations 
above  the  sixth  story,  the  extra  outlet  being  provided  for  addi- 
tional streams  which  may  be  needed  in  case  of  a  heavy  fire. 

There  should  be  hose  attached  to  each  hose  connection,  with 
playpipe,  and  standpipes  should  be  so  arranged  that  fire  streams 
will  be  effective  in  all  parts  of  each  story  using  this  equipment. 

Hose  should  be  arranged  on  a  swinging  rack  or  reel  of 
approved  design  and  located  within  easy  reach  of  persons  of 
average  height  standing  on  the  floor,  and  free  from  all  obstruc- 
tions which  will  render  it  difficult  of  access  or  which  will  pre- 
vent its  prompt  use  in  case  of  necessity. 

All  hose  stations  should  be  prominently  located.  Each 
should  be  provided  with  a  conspicuous  permanent  metallic  sign, 
preferably  painted  red,  reading  "FIRE  HOSE,"  to  which  in  the 
case  of  stations  equipped  with  large  hose  should  be  added  "For 
Fire  Department  Use  Only — Dangerous,"  and  for  stations  with 
small  hose  "For  Use  by  Occupants  of  Building." 

Roof  hydrants  should  be  so  located  that  at  least  one  stream 
will  be  available  at  any  point  on  a  roof.  Each  roof  hydrant 
should  be  controlled  by  a  gate  valve  located  under  roof  and 
operated  by  a  hand  wheel  above  roof  (connected  to  gate  valve 
by  an  extension  rod). 

Each  roof  hydrant  should  be  located  in  a  ventilated  hose 
house  similar  (both  as  to  construction  and  equipment)  to  a  hose 
house  for  a  yard  hydrant. 

Where  a  roof  hydrant  is  located  in  a  heated  roof  house,  the  ordinary  hose 
station  equipment  as  described  for  standpipes  may  be  employed. 

Monitor  nozzles  should  be  located  in  commanding  positions 
so  that  streams  can  be  brought  effectively  to  bear  on  a  fire  in 
adjoining  property.  They  should  be  connected  to  standpipe 
system  similarly  to  roof  hydrants  and  the  same  method  of  gate 
valve  control  and  draining  arrangement  should  be  provided. 
Working  parts  should  be  protected  from  the  weather  by  a  cover 
which  can  be  removed  quickly. 


FIELD     PRACTICK  171 

The  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction  should  have 
a  complete  layout  plan  of  entire  standpipe  system  as  originally 
installed.  This  plan  should  be  accurately  drawn  to  scale  (gen- 
erally one  inch  equals  fifty  feet),  and  show  location  of  each 
standpipe  riser  and  hose  connection,  roof  hydrant,  monitor 
nozzle,  etc.,  together  with  piping — both  inside  and  undergound 
— supplying  same,  all  valves,  pipe  sizes,  water  supplies,  etc. 

Any  and  all  changes  in,  or  additions  to,  the  system  should 
be  carefully  and  accurately  noted  on  plan  from  time  to  time.  It 
is  essential  that  copies  of  this'  plan  be  displayed  conspicuously 
in  various  portions  of  the  property,  preferably  one  at  each 
hose  station,  but  at  any  rate  at  office,  engine  room  and  gate 
house,  so  that  the  extent,  purposes  and  means  of  control  of  the 
system  may  be  thoroughly  understood.  Where  other  fire  protec- 
tion exists — such  as  sprinklers,  hydrants,  etc., — one  plan  should 
include  all  data.  Changes  should  not  be  made  without  the 
knowledge  and  consent  of  the  Inspection  Department  having 
jurisdiction,  and  notification  should  always  be  given  the  In- 
spection Department  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  shut  off  the 
water.  (Conditions  can  be  anticipated,  and  reasonable  advance 
notification  given  except  in  case  of  emergencies,  which  neces- 
sitate immediate  repairs.) 

Employees  should  be  familiar  with  the  system,  the  location 
of  the  hose  stations,  and  the  handling  of  heavy  fire  streams,  and 
to  this  end  it  is  recommended  that  "Private  Fire  Departments" 
be  organized  wherever  feasible  and  regularly  drilled  in  the  use 
of  the  apparatus. 

( See  pamphlet  covering  suggestions  for  "  Private  Fire  Depart- 
ments.''^) 

(a)  See  that  all  valves  controlling  water  supply  to  standpipe  system  are  sealed  or 

strapped  open. 
Controlling  valves  should  be  plainly-  marked  for  identification 
and  should  be  so  located  that  they  -«vill  not  be  rendered  inaccessible 
by  heat  or  falling  '^alls.  If  building  changes  have  been  made  since 
installation,  make  sure  that  they  have  not  been  such  as  \o  endanger 
the  safety  of  controlling  valves. 

(b)  See  that  each  connection  from  water  supply  to  standpipe  is  provided  with 

gate  and  check  valves  located  close  to  the  supply. 
(  See  details  of  inspection  of  Gate  and  Check  Valves.) 

(c)  If  there  are  steamer  connections,  see  that  they  are  accessible  to  fire  depart- 

ment apparatus. 


172  FIELD    PRACTICE 

See  that  steamer  connections  are  provided  with  female  hose  coup- 
lings for  all  outlets,  that  threads  fit  fire  department  hose  couplings 
and  that  cap  is  on  each  coupling.  See  that  steamer  connections  have 
*' Standpipe  **  cast  on  top  or  otherw^ise  plainly  and  permanently 
affixed. 

(See  Steamer  Connections  for  details  of  inspection.) 

(d)  Each  hose  valve  should  be  provided  with  an  open  pet  cock  arranged  to  dis- 

charge any  leakage  past  the  valve  into  an  open  drain  pipe.  The  system  of 
drain  pipes  should  be  large  enough  to  carry  off  the  water  where  the  pet 
cocks  are  discharging  under  pressure, — should  be  rigidly  installed  and 
connected  to  the  sewer  or  other  convenient  place  for  the  disposal  of  the 
water. 

Main  drain  pipes  should  be  connected  to  a  discharge  cone  to  fa- 
cilitate observation  of  w^orking  conditions.  Drain  pipes  should  be 
installed  on  steamer  connections  Mi-ith  ball  drip  valves  so  as  to  drain 
properly  the  piping  bet^reen  the  check  valves  and  the  outside  hose 
couplings. 

(e)  Observe,  by  actual   gauge  test,  if  there  is  proper   static  water  pressure  at 

top  of  each  standpipe  riser.  (There  should  be  a  gauge  [or  gauge  connec- 
tion] with  pet-cock  at  top  of  each  standpipe  riser.  If  these  are  not  found, 
they  should  be  provided.) 

This  is  important,  not  only  to  determine  that  there  is  actually 
-Heater  pressure  on  the  system,  but  also  to  be  sure  that  conditions  of 
normal  >vater  supply  and^or  pressure  have  not  changed  since  pre- 
vious inspection.  If  either  ^vater  supply  or  pressure  has  become  in- 
adequate the  system  has  lost  its  efficiency,  especially  on  upper  floors. 

(f)  A  flowing  pressure  test,  under  normal  conditions  of  water  supply,  should 

be  made  at  top  hose  connection  of  each  standpipe  riser  always  at 
time  of  original  installation,  once  a  year  thereafter,  and  ■M'henever  the 

inspector  has  reason  to  suspect  riser  has  become  obstructed  by  reason  of 
freezing  or  other  cause. 

A  separate  length  of  hose,  kept  for  the  purpose,  should  be  used 
and  a  record  should  be  kept  of  pressures  obtained — both  flow^ing  and 
static — for  comparative  purposes,  that  the  presence  of  unusual  or 
dangerous  conditions  may  the  more  readily  be  recognized. 

(g)  At  fall  and  winter  inspections  make  sure  that  towers  or  attic  enclosures  con- 

taining standpipes  are  well  heated  so  that    there  will  be  no  danger  of 

freezing, 
(h)     See  that  each  hose  valve  is  equipped  with  an  open  drip  connection,  so  in- 

stalled  that  any  slight  leakage  past  valve  seat  will  be  carried  off  and  there 

will  be  no  danger  of  water  seeping  into  hose, 
(i)      See  that  gate  valves  for  roof  hydrants  and  monitor  nozzles  are  equipped  with 

drains  so  that  when  valves  are  closed  the  roof  hydrant  or  monitor  nozzle 

will  drain. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  ITS 

(j)      See  that  hose  outlet  valves  are  not  leaking-,  that  they  are  not  obstructed  and 

that  they  can  be  operated  readily  if  necessary, 
(k)     Observe  if  hose  connections  are  so  arranged  that  fire  streams  will  be  efTective 

in  all  parts  of  each  story. 
(1)      See  that  hose  is  attached  to  outlet;  that  it  is  neatly  folded  on  rack  or  properly 

reeled  and  that  nozzle  is  attached. 

When  inspector  has  no  proper  assurance  of  ilood  qualiiy  in  the 
hose,  investiitation  should  be  made,  a  representative  leniftth  bein^ 
submitted  to  heavy  water  pressure  test. 

(m)  If  hose  equipment  is  defective  or  incomplete,  renewals  or  additions  to  equip- 
ment should  be  required. 

(n)  See  that  in  addition  to  hose  and  nozzle  equipment  (where  required  by  In- 
spection Department  having  jurisdiction)  each  hose  station  is  provided 
with  an  axe,  a  lantern,  a  saw,  two  spanners  and  a  supply  of  rubber 
gaskets. 

(o)  Ascertain  if  there  is  any  organization  of  employee's  for  fighting  fire  and  if  so, 
if  they  are  drilled  regularly. 

Drills  where  hose  is  laid  out  but  >vhere  water  is  not  turned  on 
are  of  much  value  in  familiarizinit  the  employees  >vith  the  equipment* 


4.     OPEN   SPRINKLERS 

Full  and  efficient  protection  against  serious  exposure  fires 
cannot  be  expected  from  open  sprinkler  systems  alone,  but  in 
conjunction  with  standard  fire  shutters,  steel  rolling  shutters  or 
wired  glass  windows  in  standard  metal  frames,  a  water  curtain 
or  spray  from  open  sprinklers  will  be  of  material  service,  pro- 
vided an  uninterrupted  supply  of  water  is  available.  This  can 
be  had  only  from  town  or  city  waterworks  systems  of  excep- 
tional reliability,  or  from  private  pumping  plants  of  large 
capacity  having  more  than  ordinary  sources  of  water  supply  to 
draw  from. 

It  is  presumed  that  the  equipment  has  been  installed  in  con- 
formity with  standard  requirements  in  all  details  of  construc- 
tion ;  that  a  sufficient  number  of  sprinkler  outlets  have  been 
provided  to  "cover"  all  vulnerable  points  on  the  exposed  build- 
ing, and  that  a  practical  test  has  been  made  at  time  of  installa- 
tion to  determine  the  ability  of  the  water  supply  to  furnish  an 
adequate  volume  and  pressure  of  water  to  thoroughly  drench  all 
exposed  surfaces  the  system  is  designed  to  protect. 

Open  sprinkler  systems  apparently  remain  unchanged   from 


174  FIELD    PRACTICE 

year  to  year,  the  supposition  being  that  as  there  are  no  movable 
parts  subject  to  corrosive  influences,  it  is  merely  necessary  to 
turn  on  the  water  at  a  moment's  notice,  and  obtain  a  full  flow 
of  water  from  all  sprinkler  orifices.  Such,  however,  is  not 
always  the  result,  owing  to  the  orifices  becoming  clogged  with 
scale  from  the  piping,  or  small  particles  of  hard  sediment,  etc., 
being  carried  along  through  the  branch  lines. 

It  is,  therefore,  advisable  to  make  annual  or  semiannual 
waterflow  tests  of  open  sprinkler  systems.  In  some  places  this 
can  be  done  only  on  holidays,  or  at  times  other  than  during 
regular  business  hours.  On  buildings  having  more  than  one 
side  subject  to  exposure  from  one  direction,  all  of  the  sprinklers 
covering  such  areas  should  be  tested  at  the  same  time,  to  ascer- 
tain if  the  water  supply  is  adequate  to  feed  all  sprinklers  designed 
to  be  so  operated. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  INSPECTION. 

(a)  Prepare  a  rough  diagram  of  the  sides  of  building  equipped,  drawing  vertical 

lines  to  correspond  with  each  vertical  row  or  tier  of  windows  protected, 
and  horizontal  lines  to  represent  the  number  of  lines  of  sprinklers.  Mark 
the  vertical  lines  A,  B,  C,  etc.,  and  the  horizontal  lines  1,  2,  3,  etc, 

(b)  Attach  pressure  gauges  at  pump  or  feed  main  and  at  the  upper  part  of  the 

system  if  possible. 

(c)  See  that  all  windows  are  tightly  closed  and,  if  possible,  arrange  to  have  per- 

sons stationed  on  each  floor  of  the  building  with  cloths,  etc.,  to  absorb 
any  water  that  may  leak  in  through  crevices.  Arrange  to  have  gauge 
pressures  noted. 

(d)  Have  the  water  turned  on  and  carefully  note  any  sprinklers  that  do  not  make 

full  discharge  of  water,  using  the  diagram  to  make  a  quick  record  of  the 
heads  that  are  clogged,  viz.,  B,  4;  G,  2,  etc.  As  it  may  be  possible  to 
keep  water  flowing  but  a  few  moments,  the  diagram  will  serve  for  consul- 
tation at  leisure  after  the  supply  is  turned  off". 

Open  sprinklers  on  extreme  end  of  lines  are  subject  to  clogging 
-with  sediment  and  other  obstacles.  It  is  advisable  to  require  at  end 
of  lines  a  12-inch  or  IS-inch  exitension  capped  at  the  end,  in  order  to 
take  care  of  such  accumulations,  M^hich  may  be  removed. 

(e)  See  that  the   sprinklers  so  noted  are  removed,  cleaned,  replaced   and  the 

system  perfectly  drained  after  testing. 

(f)  Ascertain  if  night  watchman,  day  engineer  or  superintendent,  is  familiar 

Avith  water  controlling  valve  or  valves  to  open  sprinkler  system;  also 
whether  officers  of  nearest  fire  station  are  familiar  with  location  and 
operation  of  system. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  175 

5.     STEAM  JETS  AND   DRY  ROOM  SPRINKLERS 

Steam  jets  may  be  of  value  in  such  enclosures  as  shavings 
vaults,  dry  kilns,  dust  collecting  rooms,  small  picker  rooms, 
certain  types  of  drying  and  japanning  ovens,  and  in  other 
rooms  of  this  nature  wherein  a  fire  may  be  extinguished  by 
means  of  a  prompt  flow  of  steam.  Steam  properly  used,  acts  to 
smother  the  flames.  Automatic  sprinklers  installed  in  a  standard 
manner  constitute  the  only  dependable  protection,  and  their  use 
should  never  be  waived  in  favor  of  steam  jets. 

Where  protection  supplementary  to  standard  protection  is 
desired  or  where  such  protection  is  not  available,  steam  jets 
may  be  installed  for  fire  extinguishing  purposes.  The  following 
features  are  considered  essential  to  their  effective  operation: — 

(a)  Steam  Jets   to  Act  Automatically-*     The   use  of  approved   automatic 

sprinklers  to  release  the  ste:im  from  the  pipes  is  considered  essential. 
The  valve  on  the  pipe  line  should  be  sealed  open  at  all  times.  The  use  of 
a  valve  which  must  be  opened  in  case  of  fire  is  not  recommended. 

(b)  Steam  Supply-  to  be  Ample.     It  is  necessary  to  have  a  supply  of  steam  at 

all  times.  The  minimum  pressure  should  be  such  that  steam  can  be 
delivered,  with  all  the  outlets  wide  open,  at  not  less  than  fifteen  pounds  at 
the  entrance  to  the  system. 
(C)  Pipe  Sizes.  The  pipe  sizes  should  be  in  accordance  with  the  rules  govern- 
ing  the  installation  of  automatic  sprinkler  equipments.  Where  located 
over  200  feet  from  the  boilers,  the  feed  pipe  to  the  jets  should  be  one  size 
larger  than  the  regular  schedule  size.  The  pipe  to  the  boilers  should  be 
lagged  to  prevent  condensation. 

(d)  Pipe  Supplying  Jets  to  be  Independent.     The  pipe  should  be  an  inde- 

pendent line  direct  from  the  boilers.  The  pipe  should  be  clear  of  all  wood- 
work or  combustible  material  where  passing  through  partitions,  and  be 
substantially  supported. 

(e)  Jets  Required.     Automatic  jets  to  be  provided  in  the  proportion  of  one  for 

each  1000  cubic  feet  area  of  the  enclosure.  Entire  cubical  contents  of  the 
enclosure  protected  to  be  figured,  including  hollow  walls,  monitors,  venti- 
lators, etc. 

(f)  Spacinil.    Jets  should  be  spaced  not  over  ten  feet  apart.    Lines  nearest  the 

walls  (in  both  directions)  not  to  be  over  five  feet  distant.  Pipe  lines  may 
be  fastened  directly  to  the  side  walls  by  metal  hangers  if  desired. 
A  distribution  of  heads  will  insure  more  prompt  opening  at  a  fire  and  will 
place  the  steam  to  better  advantage  than  would  one  large  jet.  Heads  can 
best  be  located  overhead  as  they  will  be  more  quickly  opened  by  the  heat  if 
near  the  ceiling.  Orifices  should  point  downward  unless  the  heads  are 
subject  to  injury,  in  which  case  they  should  be  located  upright,  above  the 
pipes. 


176  FIELD     PRACTICE 

(g)  Distributing  Pipes.  Distributing  pipes  should  be  graded  so  that  water 
from  condensation  will  remain  in  the  pipes.  This  will  permit  of  a  lower 
test  sprinkler  being  used  than  if  the  steam  is  in  contact  with  the  sprinkler. 
This  method  also  has  the  advantage  that  water  will  be  discharged  at  first 
and  cool  the  fire.  Where  the  steam  pipe  enters  from  below,  an  automatic 
steam  trap  should  be  provided,  to  keep  the  riser  free  of  water. 

(h)  Openings  into  Enclosure.  All  openings  should  be  provided  with  means 
for  closing  them  tightly.  This  includes  all  ventilators,  doors  and  pipe 
openings.  It  is  essential  for  prompt  fire  extinguishment,  that  the  steam 
be  so  confined  that  no  fresh  air  can  be  admitted. 

(1)  L.o'w  Test  Sprinklers  Practicable.  Use  as  low  a  test  sprinkler  as  prac- 
ticable. A  margin  of  50  to  75  degrees  over  the  ordinary  maximum  tem- 
perature is  usually  sufficient. 


6.     CHEMICAL  FIRE   EXTINGUISHERS 

These  first  aid  appliances  are  invaluable  in  extinguishing  in- 
cipient fires  and  should  be  liberally  provided  and  maintained  in 
good  condition. 

(Label  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  indicates  inspection  of  extinguishers 
during  manufacture.) 

All  extinguishers  should  be  conspicuously  located,  preferably 
suspended  on  posts  or  walls  about  five  feet  from  floor  and  should 
be  systematically  spaced  throughout  the  entire  buildings  or  floors 
requiring  them. 

1 .  CARBONIC  ACID  GAS  EXTINGUISHERS  (HAND  TYPE). 

(a)  Test  by  actual  operation,  emptying  the  contents  as  at  a  fire;  then  require  that 

the  extinguisher  be  immediately  refilled  and  the  date  of  recharging 
noted  on  tag  provided  for  that  purpose.  They  should  be  recharged  at  least 
once  a  year. 

(b)  Carefully  examine  hose,   hose  nozzle  and    connection,   observing   whether 

or  not  the  latter  shows  signs  of  corrosion.  If  hose  shows  signs  of 
deterioration,  have  a  new  hose  provided. 

(c)  Property  owners  should  keep  on  hand  a  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  and  bi- 

carbonate of  soda  for  prompt  recharging  of  extinguishers. 

(d)  Care  should  be  taken  that  extinguishers  are  not  placed  in  buildings  where 

they  might  freeze.  During  extremely  cold  weather  it  is  advisable  to 
group  the  extinguishers  in  a  room  sufficiently  heated  to  prevent  freezing. 

2.  EXTINGUISHERS     EMPLOYING     SPECIAL     LIQUIDS 

WITH    LOW  FREEZING   POINTS. 

(a)     Examine  extinguisher  carefully  to  ascertain  if  it  is  fully  charged  with  the 
liquid  supplied  for  its  use  by  the  manufacturers. 


FIELD    PRACTICK  177 

(b)  Examine  outlet  and  any  moving  parts  to  ascertain   if  they  are  free  from 

corrosion  and  in  perfect  working  order. 

(c)  Property  owners  should  keep  on  hand  a  quantity  of  the  liquid  supplied  by 

the  manufacturers  for  use  in  such  extinguishers. 

3.    CHEMICAL  ENGINES  ON  WHEELS. 

These  are  practically  an  enlarged  form  of  the  hand  carbonic 
acid  gas  extinguisher,  and  the  suggestions  given  above  for  their 
inspection  are  applicable  to  the  chemical  engine. 


7.    WATER  CASKS  AND    PAILS  t    SAWDUST    AND 
BICARBONATE  OF   SODA 

Note  condition  of  casks  or  pails  as  regards  decay,  leaking 
or  rust,  and  contents  as  regards  cleanliness. 

All  casks  and  pails  should  be  well  painted,  and  completely 
emptied,  cleaned  and  refilled  at  regular  intervals.  They  should 
also  be  covered.  So  much  depends  on  climatic  conditions  and 
temperatures  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  just  how  often 
they  should  be  filled,  but  a  careful  inspection  on  the  part  of  the 
plant  inspector  may  insure  their  being  full  at  all  times. 

(a)  Note  that  all  casks  and  pails  are  in  readily  accessible  and  prominent  locations. 

Pails  should  be  kept  near  casks.  There  should  be  at  least  one  dozen 
pails  to  every  5,000  feet  of  floor  area.  If  the  plant  is  equipped  with  pails 
only  they  should  be  suspended  from  brackets  made  fast  to  the  walls  or 
posts  and  not  less  than  five  feet  from  the  iloor. 

(b)  If  all  pails  are  painted  a  bright  red  and  marked  •♦  For  Fire  Only**  there  is 

less  danger  of  the  employees  using  them  for  domestic  purposes. 

(c)  Note  temperature  of  rooms  to  determine  whether  water  will  freeze  in  winter. 

If  there  is  any  likelihood  of  this,  there  should  be  dissolved  one  and  one- 
half  pounds  of  common  salt  or  calcium  chloride  to  each  gallon  of  water. 

(d)  The  value  of  sawdust  as  a  means  of  extinguishing  fire  in  burning  liquids  by 

smothering  flame,  is  recognized.  Where  volatiles  are  handled,  and  where 
grease  and  oil  boiling  is  conducted,  recommend  an  ample  number  of  pails  of 
sawdust  with  about  a  ten  per  cent  mixture  of  crude  bicarbonate  of  soda  and 
scoops  for  them. 

8.     NIGHT  WATCHMAN 

Care  should  be  given  the  selection  of  a  night  watchman.  In 
permitting  a  man  to  assume  watch  and  care  over  property  repre- 
senting great  values,  the  owner  should  be  particular  to  employ 
not   only  a  strong  and   able-bodied    one,  but    one   who  is   trust- 


178  FIELD    PRACTICE 

worthy  and  honest.  In  addition,  he  should  be  instructed  in  the 
operation  of  all  means  of  fire  protection  and  manner  of  extin- 
guishment. A  night  watchman  having  these  qualifications  is 
entitled  to  proper  compensation,  as  the  nature  of  his  work  and 
the  long  hours  justly  warrant  such  consideration.  Too  often  it 
is  found  that  the  night  watchman  is  a  man  unfit  for  such 
service, — being  old,  crippled  or  infirm, — and  more  worthy  as  a 
pensioner  than  qualified  to  assume  the  important  duties  of  a 
caretaker.  As  much  care  should  be  followed  in  selecting  a 
night  watchman  as  in  securing  a  bookkeeper  or  engineer. 

A  watchman  should  not  be  overburdened  with  other  duties, 
such  as  firing  boilers,  doing  janitor's  work,  acting  as  messenger, 
or  be  given  work  which  may  prevent  him  from  giving  undivided 
attention  to  observation  of  the  plant  under  his  charge. 

It  should  be  carefully  observed  whether  or  not  the  night 
watchman  qualifies  as  follows: — 

(a)  Watchman  snould  not  be  permitted  to  smoke  while  on  duty.     He  should  re- 

frain from  all  intoxicants.  A  watchman  without  the  smoking  habit  is 
distinctly  preferable. 

(b)  The  watchman  should  know  the  exact  location  of  all  fii-e  apparatus  on  the 

premise?,  and  understand  how  to  use  it.  He  must  frequently  observe 
whether  such  apparatus  is  in  operative  condition,  by  practically  testing  it. 
He  should  immediately  make  report  to  the  management  of  any  defective 
apparatus,  or  of  the  misplacement  of  the  same. 

(c)  The  watchman  should  know  the  exact  location  of  all  fire  alarms,  of  the  tele- 

phone number  of  fire  department  headquarters,  and  the  location  and 
number  of  nearest  street  fire  alarm  box.  He  must  also  know  the  name  of 
street  and  exact  number  on  street  of  the  concern  for  which  he  is  working. 

(d)  The  watchman  upon  assuming  his  regular  duties  should  see  that  all  fire  doors 

and  shutters  are  closed  and  that  they  are  in  operative  order,  where  they 
are  not  of  the  self-closing  type.  He  should  close  doors  to  stairways  and 
other  vertical  openings,  where  not  self-closing, 

(e)  The  watchman  should  carefully  observe  the  matter  of  cleanliness,  especially 

the  presence  of  oily  waste,  rags,  workmen's  clothes,  rubbish  and  useless 
inflammable  material.  He  should  take  instant  care  of,  or  i-emove  same,  or 
report  to  management  for  attention. 

(f)  The  watchman    should   familiarize   himself  with  location    of   all   furnaces, 

boilers,  heaters,  or  other  heating  apparatus,  and  their  arrangement,  espe- 
cially observing  upon  his  rounds  the  condition  of  same,  and  of  any  com- 
bustible material  nearby. 

(g)  The  watchman  should  know  the  exact  location  of  gas  shut-off  valves,  and  of 

electric  light  and  power  cut-out  switches. 
(h)     The  watchman  should  have  full  instructions  as  to  details  of  operation  of  au- 
tomatic sprinkler  equipment,  and  the  turning  on  and  shutting  off  of  water. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  179 

(I)  The  watchman  should  be  instructed  as  to  manner  in  which  to  communicate 
instantly  with  superintendent  or  other  company  officials. 

(J)  The  watchman  should  observe  closely  the  location  of  storage  of  acids,  chemi- 
cals,  oils  and  explosives,  if  any,  ji;^iving  especial  attention  to  proper  main- 
tenance and  care  of  all  such  supplies. 

(k)  The  watchman  should  be  regular  in  his  rounds,  start  promptly  upon  his 
duties,  and  not  leave  the  premises  until  checked  out  by  person  or  persons 
relieving  him.  He  should  never  leave  the  premises  unguarded  during 
duty  hours.  He  should,  during  his  rounds,  keep  his  eye  on  adjoining 
exposing  properties  and  in  case  of  a  neighboring  fire,  should  turn  in  a  fire 
alarm. 

(1)  Watchman  should  not  be  permitted  to  use  or  carry  other  than  safety  matches. 
He  should  be  provided  with  and  use  an  approved  safety  lantern  or  electric 
lamp. 

(m)  The  watchman  should  never  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  he  is  entrusted  with 
the  important  responsibility  of  protecting  large  values  against  loss  by  fire 
and  that  many  employees  are  dependent  for  their  livelihood  upon  the  per- 
manent operation  of  the  plant  and  property  over  which  he  has  charge. 

(n)  The  employer  should  see  that  route  and  stations  are  so  located  that 
watchman  may  cover  the  entire  plant  at  least  hourly.  Watchman  should 
not  be  permitted  to  devote  less  than  45  minutes  of  each  hour  to  "  ringing 
in,"  nor  should  be  permitted  to  rush  through  the  plant  in  a  few  minutes 
and  then  remain  idle  the  balance  of  the  hour. 


9.     SIGNALING  SYSTEMS 

This  subject  is  a  very  comprehensive  one,  covering  all  such 
systems,  from  the  very  complex  central  station  equipment 
to  the  simple  local  electric  bell  alarm  often  found  in  con- 
nection with  automatic  sprinkler  systems.  For  details  of 
construction  and  installation  of  the  various  systems  included 
under  the  above  heading,  the  Inspector  is  referred  to  the  sep- 
arately published  regulations.  For  information  in  reference  to 
the  operation  of  particular  devices,  and  methods  of  testing  cir- 
cuits, test  records,  runner  service,  etc.,  the  Inspector  should 
apply  at  the  offices  of  the  installing  and  operating  companies. 
As  all  central  station  Manual  Fire  Alarm,  Automatic  Fire  Alarm, 
Thermostat,  Watchmen's  Time  Recording  and  Automatic 
Sprinkler  Supervisory  Systems  are  closed  circuits,  constantly 
energized,  the  Inspector  must  necessarily  refrain  from 
making  any  individual  examination  or  test  "w^ithout  special 
permission  from  an  official  source,  and  reinspections  must, 
therefore,    consist   largely    of   examination   of   service    records. 


180  FIELD    PRACTICE 

The  Inspector  is  advised  to  make  all  examinations  of  these 
systems  accompanied  by  an  authorized  representative  of  the 
signaling  company.  The  signaling  company's  records  will,  in 
most  instances,  furnish  satisfactory  information  in  reference  to 
general  operative  efficiency. 
(See  also  Alarm  Valves.) 

1.  MANUAL  FIRE  ALARM  SYSTEMS. 

(a)  Note  the  general  layout  of  the  system,  location  and  accessibility  of  boxes, 

condition  of  exposed  interior  and  exterior  wiring,  insulator  fastenings  and 
supports. 

(b)  Note  additions  and  extensions,  and  if  any  new  buildings  are  not  covered  by 

the  system. 

(c)  Examine  test  records. 

2.  AUTOMATIC    FIRE    ALARM   AND  THERMOSTAT  SYS- 

TEMS. 

(a)  Observe  the  general  arrangement  of  circuits,  location  of  thermostats,  loca- 

tion and  accessibility  of  manual  boxes,  annunciators,  etc. 

(b)  Note  any  portions  of  the  building  in  which  the  system  is  disconnected  or  to 

which  it  has  not  been  extended. 
(C)     See  that  thermostats  have  not  been  boxed  within  hollow  partitions  or  other 
very  small  enclosures  that  would  impair  the  efficiency  of  the  system  in  sur- 
rounding areas. 

(d)  Note    any   seriously  corroded   or    coated    thermostats,   connections,  loose 

fastenings,  etc. 

(e)  Examine   test  records.    Test  local  circuits  and  where  possible  the  outside 

lines. 

3.  AUTOMATIC  JOURNAL  ALARMS. 

(a)     Note  the  general  run  of  circuits,  location  of  switches,  annunciator,  gongs, 

number  of  thermostats,  etc. 
(\i)     See  that  all  bearings  are  properly  equipped  and  each  thermostat  in  good 

condition. 

(c)  Observe  the  method  of  testing  and  examine  record  dials. 

4.  WATCHMAN'S  TIME  RECORDING  APPARATUS. 

A.    Central  Station  Systems. 

(a)  Note  the  location  of  all  watch  or  clock  stations,  type  of  appliances 

etc. 

(b)  See  that  all  portions  of  buildings   are    "  covered "    in   rounds  from 

station  to  station,  and   note  the  rounds  made  nights,  Sundays  and 
holidays. 

(c)  Examine  clock  dials  or  records  made  since  previous  inspection. 

(d)  Observe  if  type  of  boxes  is  approved. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  181 

B.    Local     or     Private     Stationary     Systems    and 
Portable   Watch    Clocks. 

Make  same  general  examination  of  system  as  for  Central  Station  System,  also 
particularly  observe  key  stations,  noting  if  keys  are  in  place  and  securely  fastened. 
Observe  if  system  is  of  approved  type. 


5.    AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLER  ALARM  AND  SUPERVISORY 
SYSTEMS. 

(a)  Observe  the  various  distinctive  features  of  the  system,  viz.,  gate  valve,  pres- 

sure  gauge,  water-level,  temperature,  water-flow  and  manual  alarm  signal 
devices  so  tar  as  a  superficial  examination  can  be  made,  but  make  no  at- 
tempt to  test  the  system  by  operation  of  devices  without  first  obtaining 
permission. 

(b)  Note  gate  valves,  whether  indicating  open  or  closed.    If  doubt  exists,  apply 

to  proper  authority  for  permission  to  test. 

(c)  Examine  signal  records  and  request  demonstration  as  to  method  of  receipt 

from  plant  and  transmission  to  Fire  Department. 


6.    LOCAL  SPRINKLER  ALARM  SYSTEMS. 

While  the  general  requirements  call  for  connection  to  Fire 
Department  houses  or  to  residences  of  employees  nearby,  such 
connections  are  not  always  feasible  and  dependence  often  has 
to  be  placed  upon  the  ordinary  gong. 

(a)  Ascertain  the  location  of  alarm  gongs  with  reference  to  probable  value  in 

attracting  attention  in  the  event  of  operation. 

(b)  Obtain  permission  to  test  before  doing  so.    The  sudden  ringing  of  an  alarm 

may  cause  serious  disturbance  among  employees,  and  where  there  is  con- 
nection with  a  distant  house,  a  false  alarm  would  bring  forth  prompt  con- 
demnation. 

^c)  Permission  being  received,  test  alarm  on  wet  system  by  opening  test  valve, 
or  any  opening  equivalent  to  the  flow  from  one  sprinkler. 

(d)     Require  inoperative  alarms  to  be  put  in  serviceable  condition. 

le)  Ascertain  if  it  is  customary  to  make  weekly  tests  of  system;  if  not,  suggest 
that  some  such  systematic  plan  be  followed. 


7.    WATER  MOTOR  SPRINKLER  ALARMS. 

These  may  be  considered  as  signaling  devices  and  the  same 
care  should  be  exercised  in  testing  to  avoid  unpleasant  results. 
Require  repairs  or  adjustment  of  alarms  found  inoperative. 


182  FIELD    PRACTICE 

8.    FACTORY  ALARMS. 

In  some  cities  and  states,  laws  require  the  installation 
of  manually  operated  alarm  gongs  to  supplement  exit  drills.  The 
Inspector  should  not  attempt  to  test  such  devices  without 
permission. 


10.     CARE    OF   FIRE  APPLIANCES    IN   WINTER- 
COLD  WEATHER   PRECAUTIONS 

Cold  weather  is  especially  severe  upon  fire  protection  appli- 
ances ;  and  unless  extreme  care  is  exercised  the  very  best  instal- 
lations may  suffer  temporary  disablement. 

Just  prior  to  the  approach  of  winter  it  is  necessary  that 
attention  be  given  all  fire  protection  appliances  and  connections, 
in  order  that  precautions  may  be  taken  to  forestall  damage  and 
disablement  from  frost. 

Inspectors  should  personally  assure  themselves  that  every- 
thing possible  is  done  to  prevent  cold  weather  damage,  and  the 
following  features,  in  particular,  should  be  directly  called  to  the 
attention  of  property  owners: — 

(a)  Examine  tanks  and  all  pipes,  fittings  and  valves,  whether  for  steam  heating, 

general  water  service,  or  fire  protection.  See  that  none  is  frozen  or  has 
been  frozen,  and  that  they  are  all  in  operative  condition,  and  where  there 
is  any  liability  of  freezing,  provide  the  necessary  protection. 

(b)  See  that  all  valves  are  open  that  should  be  open,  and  try  water  outlets  to 

ascertain  if  all  pipes  are  free  and  ready  for  service. 

(c)  See  that  extra  sprinklers  are  on  hand  in  case  of  need  to  replace  frozen  or 

melted  heads. 

(d)  Be  sure  that  engineer  or  supervising  employee  is  fully  posted  as  to  the  pur- 

pose and  intention  of  every  valve  and  pipe. 

(e)  Try  out  pumps  and  see  that  they  are  in  proper  working  order. 

(f)  Test  all  of  the  hydrants  and  indicator  posts,  and  see  that  they  drain  properly. 

(g)  Instruct  the  night  watchman  thoroughly  in  the  use  of  all  fire  apparatus  and 

the  operation  of  all  valves. 
(h)     Examine  the  end  of   suction  pipe  of  fire  pump  to  see  that  leaves  or  other 

refuse  matter  have  not  clogged  up  the  holes  in  the  strainer.     Installations 

have  been  reported  where  the  capacity  of  the  pump  has  been  greatly  reduced 

through  such  conditions. 
(I)      Attention  is  called  to  the  liability  of  water  to  freeze  in  casks  and  pails  in  cold 

buildings.     Measures  should  be  taken  to  guard  against  this, 
(j)      Chemical   extinguishers   should   be  emptied  and  recharged  to   insure  their 

being  in  perfect  working  order, 
(k)    Hydrants  should  receive  especial  attention,  as  should  also  inside  standpipe 

and  connections. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  183 

11.  MAINTENANCE  OF  FIRE  DOORS  AND 
SHUTTERS 

Solid  walls  are  generally  more  eflicient  as  fire  retardants 
than  even  the  best  class  of  doors  used  to  protect  the  openings 
in  such  walls.  The  value  of  any  wall  structure  as  a  fire  stop  is, 
therefore,  largely  dependent  on  the  number  of  openings,  and  the 
protection  afforded  by  the  fire  doors,  or  shutters,  closing  these 
openings.  It  is  also  evident  that  the  door  or  shutter  designed 
to  protect  an  opening  is  of  no  value  unless  it  closes  the  open- 
ing in  time  of  fire,  and  that  its  efficiency  when  in  position 
depends  largely  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is  attached  to  the 
wall  and  its  operative  condition. 

(Labels  of  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories  on  doors,  shutters  or  hardware, 
therefore,  may  be  taken  as  evidence  of  the  proper  construction  of  the  same  at  the 
factory.) 

It  is  <he  proper  installation  and  operative  condition  of  the  door 
or  shutter  that  the  inspector  should  look  after. 

(a)  Each  door  or  shutter  should  be  subjected  to  operating  tests  in  order  to  deter- 

mine  the  ease  with  which  the  device  closes,  the  accuracy  with  which  it  fits 
the  wall  opening-  and  the  positiveness  of  the  latching  mechanism.  When 
weights  hold  doors  open,  the  positiveness  of  the  closing  mechanism 
may  be  determined  by  lifting  the  weights.  Doors  which  are  normally 
closed  should  be  provided  with  a  liquid  door  check,  and  it  should  be  noted 
if  the  check  is  in  an  operative  condition.  Doors  should  not  be  wedged 
open. 

(b)  Operate  each  steel  rolling  door  or  shutter,  observing  if  the  mechanism  acts 

easily  and  positively.  Note  if  the  metal  is  free  from  rust,  and  the  bearings 
properly  lubricated.  These  devices  require  careful  observation,  and  great 
care  should  be  given  to  their  maintenance. 
(C)  Fuses  of  automatic  operating  devices  must  be  properly  placed  and  in  order, 
and  so  arranged  as  to  receive  air  currents,  and  where  possible,  be  located 
opposite  the  opening. 

(d)  Observe  if  doors  and  shutters  are  free  to  operate.    Good  clearance  should  be 

maintained  between  the  door  and  goods  stored  in  the  room  protected  by 
the  door. 

(e)  Observe  closely  if  any  additional  unprotected  openings  have  been  cut  in  wall 

or  walls.     If  so,  approved  doors  should  be  provided  without  delay. 

(f)  See  that  all  metal  work  of  doors  or  shutters  is  kept  in  the  best  repair. 

{g)  See  that  fire  doors  or  shutters  exposed  to  the  weather  or  subjected  to  rust 
or  corrosion  from  any  cause  are  thoroughly  painted. 

(h)  See  that  all  hardware  is  securely  attached,  and  that  the  device  when  closed 
is  firmly  secured  in  place,  fully  protecting  the  opening. 

(I)  See  that  sill,  jambs,  lintels  and  stops  are  not  in  a  damaged  condition.  Ob- 
serve if  sills  are  of  fire-resistive  material,  and  whether  they  extend  beyond 


184  FIELD     PRACTICE 

the  door.  Determine  if  wood  in  wood-covered  doors  or  shutters  is  sound. 
The  presence  of  dry  rot  in  the  wood  may  often  be  detected  by  tapping  the 
outside  of  the  door  with  a  hammer.  Rotted  doors  sound  dead.  An  awl 
test  will  reveal  condition  of  wood.  Special  evidence  is  often  contributed 
by  screws  pulling-  out,  and  the  caving  in  of  metal  covering,  especially 
the  edges. 

(j)  Readily  combustible  material  should  not  be  stored  in  proximity  to  the  wall 
opening. 

(k)  Ascertain  if  positive  instructions  aie  given  by  the  management  to  close  all 
shutters  and  doors  at  night  and  over  Sundays  and  holidays.  (See  item 
(d)  Night  Watchman.) 

12.     WIRED   GLASS  WINDOWS  WITH   METAL 
FRAME  AND   SASH 

The  degree  of  protection  furnished  by  a  wired  glass  window 
is  naturally  limited   by   the   fusing  point   of  glass. 

Fire  records  show,  however,  that  under  any  ordinary  con- 
dition where  the  exposure  is  not  especially  severe  such  windows 
are  effective  fire  stops,  and  their  general  installation  and  use 
should  be  encouraged. 

(a)  See  that  the  joint  between  the   window  frame  and  the  masonry  is  of  such  a 

character  as  to  prevent  the  passage  of  air. 

(b)  Operate  all  movable  sash  to  determine  whether  there  is  any  distortion  of  the 

frame  with  resulting  binding  between  the  frame  and  sash  members. 

(c)  Note  if  the  frame  appears  to  be  nrmly  secured  to  the  wall  structure. 

(d)  See  that  no  lights  of  glass  are  broken  or  badly  cracked. 

(e)  Examine  the  windows  carefully  for  evidences  of  corrosion,  and  if  corrosion  is 

discovered,  request  that  the  windows  be  immediately  painted. 

(f)  See  that  the  sash  chains  of  double  hung  windows  are  securely  attached  to  the 

sashes  and  that  all  hardware  is  firmly  secured  in  position. 

(g)  See  that  all  sash  are  firmly  secured  in  the  frame  and  that  the  character  of  the 

fastening  is  such  that  the  sash  cannot  become  detached  from  the  frame  by 

the  normal  operation  of  the  movable  sash. 
(h)     Automatic  closing  mechanism  should  be  tested  as  nearly  as  possible  under 

actual    service  conditions;  but   inspector   should  carefully  guard  against 

leaving  the  automatic  mechanism  in  an  inoperative  condition  as  a  result 

of  inspection. 
(1)      It  should  not  be  possible  to  place  pivoted  sash  in  a  position  from  which  they 

will  not  close  by  the  action  of  gravity. 
The  label  of  the  Uiider»«^riters*  Laboratories  is  evidence    of   the 
proper  construction  of  the  M^indo^v  at  the  factory,  but  is  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  conclusive  evidence  that  the  device  as  installed  is  suitable 
and  safe  for  use. 

The  stability  of  the  >vindo-H^  as  installed  may  be  affected  by  im- 
proper installation  or  by  abuse  or  failure  to  keep  in  repair  after 
installation. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  186 

13.      STAIRWAYS,    ELEVATORS    AND    VERTICAL 
SHAFT   ENCLOSURES 

Floor  openings  (unless  properly  protected)  will  serve  as 
flues  through  which  a  fire  may  easily  extend  to  all  parts  of  a 
building.     They  should,  therefore,  be  thoroughly  safeguarded. 

(See  famphlet  on  Uniform  Requirements.') 

Property  owners  should  be  particularly  careful  not  to  cut  neiv 
openiniis  (for  stairways,  elevators  or  other  purposes)  in  any  buildinit 
without  havinit  first  notified  the  Inspection  Department  havinit  juris- 
diction and  followinit  its  suililestions  as  to  the  proper  safeguards. 

1.    STAIRWAYS. 

In  new  factory  buildings  stairways  in  separate  towers  are 
advised.     Of  such  towers  there  are  two  types: — 

(a)  The   smokeproof   stair    tower.       This    consists    of    a    fireproof    tower    en- 

tirely cut  of!"  from  the  building  by  a  blank  parapeted  fire  wall.  Entrance 
to  the  same  is  by  open  outside  platforms — likewise  fireproof — with  ap- 
proved automatic  sliding-  or  swinging  fire  doors  at  each  opening  from  the 
platform  to  building  and  to  tower.  This  provides  safe  means  of  exit,  en- 
tirely  apart  from,  while  attached  to,  the  building.  This  type  of  stair 
tower  is  recommended  as  the  safest  and  best. 

(b)  Ordinary  stair  tower.      This    is  generally    of    the    same     construction    as 

the  building  it  serves,  stairway  may  and  preferably  should  be  incombustible. 
Entrance  to  it  is  direct  from  each  floor,  each  doorway  being  fitted  with  an 
approved  automatic  sliding  or  swinging  fire  door. 

Ordinary  stairways  may  be  protected  to  a  certain  extent  in 
either  of  the  following  ways: — 

(c)  The  preferred  method  is  to  enclose  the  stairway  entirely  from  bottom  to  top 

in  a  tight  partition.  This  partition  should  he  at  least  2^  inches  thick  and 
preferably  of  cement  on  metal  lath  with  metal  studs  plastered  on  both 
sides,  and  when  so  constructed  should  have  approved  automatic  sliding 
or  swinging  fire  doors  at  doorways  opening  into  each  floor.  (Municipal 
ordinances  should  he  referred  to  where  governing.) 

Note. — In  buildings  of  lire  resistive  construction,  enclosure  should  be  of 
brick,  tile  or  concrete  at  least  8  inches  thick. 

In  attachiuil  fire  doors  to  metal  and  plaster  partitions,  care  should 
be  taken  that  special  iron  framework  is  provided  to  carry  load  and 
-w^eii^ht  of  door. 

(d)  When  stairway  enclosures  are  not  practicable  a  draft  check  can  be  provided 

by  means  of  heavy  trap  doors  counterbalanced  and  made  automatic  by  the 
use  of  fusible  links.  This  method  is  not  recommended,  however,  where  it 
is  possible  to  obtain  an  enclosure,  not  only  because  trap  doors  are  liable  to 
be  left  open  but  also  because,  having  operated  in  event  of  a  fire,  they  cut  oft 
from  the  occupants  what  is  often  the  only  means  of  escape.  There  Is  also 
a  possibility  of  injury  to  persons  should  trap  door  fall  or  operate  at  an 
inopportune  moment. 


186  FIELD     PRACTICE 

2.    ELEVATORS. 

They  are  safest  when  located  in  a  separate  cut-off  tower  with 
door  opening  at  the  various  floors  provided  with  approved  auto- 
matic sliding  fire  doors.  These  doors  should  always  be  arranged 
to  open  only  from  the  elevator  side,  and  should  preferably  be  so 
equipped  that  the  elevator  cannot  be  run  unless  they  are  all 
closed.  The  approved  type  of  counterbalanced  elevator  doors  is 
desirable. 

As  in  the  case  of  stairways,  elevators  are  frequently  found 
located  inside  the  buildings.  They  should  be  protected  in  either 
of  the  following  ways: — 

(a)  A  shaft  enclosure  at  least  2^^  inches  thick  of  cement  on  metal  lath  extending 

from  bottom  to  top  of  eievatorway  with  approved  automatic  sliding  fire 
doors  at  door  openings  at  each  floor. 

Note. — In  buildings  of  fire  resistive  construction,  enclosure  should  be  of 
brick,  tile  or  concrete  at  least  8  inches  thick. 

(b)  When  a  shaft  enclosure  is  not  deemed  practicable,  the  elevator  should  always 

be  equipped  with  automatic  hatches.  These  are  so  arranged  as  to  operate 
automatically  by  the  travel  of  the  elevator  itself.  These  hatches  are 
not,  however,  recommended  except  when  shaft  enclosures  are  not  practi- 
cable, as  they  are  not  feasible  for  fast  running  elevators. 


3.    OTHER  VERTICAL  SHAFT  OPENINGS. 

These  are  generally  for  chutes  through  which  goods  are 
passed  to  floors  below,  or  for  hand  hoists,  dumb  waiters,  etc. 
They  are  most  safely  arranged  when  located  in  an  outside 
structure  thoroughly  cut  off  from  the  building  with  standard 
automatic  fire  doors  or  shutters  at  all  openings.  Tops  of  chutes 
should  be  provided  with  weighted  covers  so  arranged  that  they 
are  closed  except  when  goods  are  being  passed  through.  It  is 
also  desirable  to  install  dampers  at  proper  intervals  in  chutes  to 
check  draft  in  event  of  fire. 

Belt  holes  through  floors  require  the  same  fire-resistive 
enclosures  as  other  vertical  openings.  The  holes  should  be 
made  as  small  as  possible  and  covered  by  a  housing  of  heavy 
galvanized  iron  or  2"  matched  plank  or  its  equivalent.  There 
should  be  at  least  a  3*  curbing  around  opening  at  floor  to  pre- 
vent water,  dirt  and  refuse  from  working  through. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  187 

General  Inspection  Observations 

(a)  Inspect  carefully   the  arrangement    of    all    stairways,   elevators   and   other 

vertical  shafts  and  observe  if  conditions  of  protection  have  in  any  way 
deteriorated  since  previous  inspection.  If  so,  arrange  for  the  necessary 
repairs. 

(b)  Observe  if  new  openings  have  been  safeguarded. 

(C)  If  any  temporary  openings  have  been  made,  ascertain  the  probable  length  of 
time  they  will  be  needed  and  arrange  for  temporary  trap  doors  (or  other 
safeguards)  to  be  provided. 

Close  >vatch  should  be  kept  on  temporary  openini^s,  "Hrhich  should 
be  permanently  closed  as  soon  as  possible. 

(d)  Test    all    doors  as   provided  under  Care    and    Maintenance   to  make  sure 

they  are  in  proper  working  order  and  unobstructed. 

Such  doors  should    be   closed  at  nii^ht  and  at  other  times  >vhen 
not  in  use. 

(e)  Observe  if  elevator  hatches  or  trap  doors  are  all  in  proper  working  order  and 

that  none  is  broken  or  otherwise  in  need  of  repair.  Request  any  needed 
improvements. 

(f)  Inspect  all  covers,  shutters   and   dampers  on  chutes,  dumb  waiters,  etc.,  to 

make  sure  that  they  are  in  proper  working  order  and  unobstructed. 

(g)  Do  not  permit  combustible  material  to  be  stored  in  landings  of  elevator  or 

stair  shafts.    These  spaces  should  be  kept  clear. 


14.    TARPAULINS  AND   BLANKETS 

Tarpaulins  are  commonly  used  by  the  Fire  Insurance  Patrol 
and  often  by  those  places  of  business  having  organized  private 
fire  protection. 

(The  tarpaulins  of  the  Fire  Insurance  Patrol  are  made  of  No. 
250  Brown  drill,  given  two  coats  of  a  preparation  composed  of 
four  gallons  of  Calcutta  raw  linseed  oil  mixed  with  one-half 
pint  of  lithia;  this  takes  one  hundred  and  twenty  days  to  dry 
thoroughly.  A  better  preparation,  giving  longer  life  to  the 
covers,  and  better  waterproofing,  is  obtained  by  using  a  mixture 
as  follows:  four  gallons  of  Calcutta  raw  linseed  oil,  one-half 
pint  of  dryer,  one-half  pint  of  lithia,  one-half  pint  of  turpentine, 
and  one-half  pint  of  beeswax  melted  and  stirred  into  the  mixture. 
Each  cover  should  receive  two  coats,  which  will  dry  and  be 
ready  for  use  in  sixty  days.) 


188  FIELD     PRACTICE 

(a)  The  size  of  the  tarpaulins  is  about  12  by  18  feet,  with  grommets  at  conven- 

ient intervals  for  hanging  them  on  side  walls  where  necessary  to  protect 
stock  on  shelves. 

(b)  The  folding  of  tarpaulins  is  important,  for  if   done  properly  two  men  can 

spread  them  in  two  motions,  and  time  is  an  important  factor  where  water 
is  coming  through  floors  upon  a  stock  of  goods. 

The  first  fold  is  across  the  twelve  foot  width;  the  cover  now  occupy- 
ing 6  by  18  feet;  the  second  fold  is  in  the  same  direction,  making  the  cover 
3  ft.  by  18  ft. 

The  next  fold  is  across  the  length;  the  cover  is  now  3  ft.  by  9  ft. 

The  next  fold  is  in  the  same  direction  and  cover  occupies  3  ft.  by  4>^  ft. 

It  can  now  be  readily  handled,  stored  on  the  wagons,  in  trucks  or 
racks,  and  two  men  in  two  motions  can  spread  the  cover  its  full  length. 
(C)  Where  a  factory  or  place  of  business  has  its  own  Fire  Department,  it  should 
have  also  its  own  salvage  corps  and  have  its  covers  ready  for  use  stacked 
on  a  hand  truck  with  end  guards  or  rails,  but  no  sides,  so  that  the  covers 
may  be  readily  taken  from  the  truck  on  either  side,  but  can  be  piled  up  at 
least  three  feet  high  on  the  truck. 

(d)  The  covers  used  by  a  private  salvage  corps  may  be  made  of  lighter  drill,  but 

their  protective  quality  will  be  accordingly  reduced. 

(e)  The  members  of  the  corps  should  be  drilled  in  folding  and  spreading  covers. 
(  )     They   should  be  instructed  how  to  break  joints  on  covers,  and  where  neces- 
sary to  double  cover. 

(g)  They  should  be  taught  how  to  install  a  cover  in  the  form  of  a  tank  under 
any  leak  or  stream  of  water. 

(h)  The  Fire  Insurance  Patrol  usually  remove  water  from  floors,  by  sweeping  it 
to  an  elevator  shaft  or  stairway,  but  where  the  water  is  not  in  such  great 
quantities,  a  few  old  blankets  quickly  spread  will  absorb  a  considerable 
amount  which  can  be  squeezed  out  in  a  sink  or  ash  can. 

(1)  Tarpaulins  should  be  aired  at  intervals,  and  should  never  be  put  away  unless 
they  are  thoroughly  clean  and  dry. 


15.     WHITEWASH   COATING  AS  A  FIRE 
RETARD ANT 

The  coating  of  interior  wood  finish  with  whitewash  will 
prevent  fire  from  readily  igniting  surfaces  so  protected.  The 
U.  S.  Government  Standard  mixture  is  as  follows: — 

Slack  one-half  bushel  of  unslacked  lime  with  boiling  water,  keeping  covered 
during  process.  Strain  and  add  one  peck  of  salt,  dissolved  in  warm  water;  three 
pounds  of  ground  rice,  put  in  water  and  boiled  to  a  thin  paste;  one-half  pound  of 
powdered  Spanish  whiting ;  one  pound  clear  glue  dissolved  in  hot  water.  Mix  well 
and  let  stand  for  several  days.  Keep  in  kettle  or  receptacle  and  apply  hot  as  pos- 
sible with  paint  or  whitewash  brush. 


FIELD     PRACTICE  189 

16.     FIREPROOF   COATING   MIXTURES 

The  following  formula  is  one  of  several  for  the  fireproofing 
of  materials,  fabrics,  etc.,  together  with  a  list  of  the  compounds 
generally  used,  and  found  effective.     (See  Note.) 

One-half  pint  Fullers  earth  ;  two  pints  sulphate  manganese;  two  and  one-half 
pints  alum;  one  pint  silicate  of  sodium;  one-half  pint  glue;  twenty  pints  of 
water;  fifteen  pints  mineral  paint.     Apply  with  brush. 

FIREPROOFING  CHEMICALS:  Alum,  tungstate  of  soda,  silicate  of 
soda  and  all  soda  compounds.  The  compounds  of  gypsum  form  adhesive  but 
brittle  coatings,  i.  e.,  alabastine  muresco,  indiorine.  Care  should  be  exercised  to 
have  wood  dry  to  avoid  dry  rot. 

The  inflammability  of  wood  may  be  reduced  by  impregnating  it  with  silicate 
of  soda  and  precipitating  silica  with  chloride  of  ammonia  or  barium. 

The  following  are  twelve  effective  anti-pyrenes  in  flame  proofing  tests: 
Ammonium  phosphate,  ammonium  sulphate,  ammonium  chloride,  calcium  chlo- 
ride, magnesium  chloride,  zinc  chloride,  alum,  borax,  boric  acid  and  aluminum 
hydrate,  zinc  sulphate  and  stannous  chloride. 

Note. — It  should  not  be  overlooked  in  fireproofing  materials  that  many  of 
them  require  expert  treatment  for  which  certain  chemicals  are  better  adapted  and 
more  efTective. 


17.     SKIDS  AND   RAISED   PLATFORMS 

Goods  stored,  particularly  in  lower  floors  and  basements, 
should  be  placed  on  raised  skids  or  skeleton  platforms,  not  less 
than  four  inches  from  floor  level,  and  never  placed  so  as  to  ob- 
struct access  to  sewer  connections. 

(a)  Observe  that  rubbish  and  accumulations  are  not  permitted  to  lodge  under 

stock  so  stored. 

(b)  Where  possible  goods  should  be  a  fair  distance  from  walls  and  partitions 

and  from  bottom  of  elevator  and  stairway  shafts. 


18.     SCUPPERS 

It  is  recommended  that,  when  feasible,  floors  be  built  with 
a  slight  pitch  (about  one  inch  to  twenty  feet)  and  have  proper 
scuppers  or  drain  pipe. 

(a)     Observe  if  building  is  provided  with  scuppers  for  draining.    They  should  be 
kept  free  from  obstructions,  and  the  traps  should  move  easily. 


INDEX 


191 


INDEX 


Absorption  of  heat,  35. 
Acetylene  gas,  23. 

generator,  27. 
Air  pumps,  162. 

Air  spaces,  in  connection  with  heating  de- 
vices, 35. 
Alarm,  manual  fire,  180. 

automatic  fire  and  thermostats,  180. 
automatic  sprinkler  and  supervisory, 

181 . 
local  sprinkler,  181. 
water  motor  sprinkler,  181 . 
Alarm  vedves  to  automatic  sprinkler  systems. 

148. 
Ammonia  as  a  refrigerating  medium,  81 . 
Ammunition,  fixed,  68. 
"Approved"  fittings,  etc.,  15. 
Artificial  gas,  23. 
Ash  cans,  1  12. 
Autogenous  welding,  53. 
Automatic  sprinkler,  137-163. 

air  pumps  and  combina- 
tion   air    compressor, 
162. 
alarm  valves,  1 48. 
distribution,  140. 
check  valves,  145. 
dry-pipe  valves,  1 47. 
electrically     driven     fire 

pumps,  157. 
feed    mains   and    risers,. 

143. 
gate  valves  and  fittings, 

143. 
gravity  tanks,  158. 
indicator  posts,  1 44. 
inside  valves,  144. 
installation  requirements 

145. 
local  alarm  systems,  181. 
melting  point  of,  141. 
pressure  tanks,  160. 
private    water    supplies, 

154. 
protection    against    cor- 
rosion, 141. 


rotary  pumps,  158. 

steam  boilers  in  connec- 
tion with  fire  pumps 
for,  156. 

steam  fire  pumps.  155. 

steamer  connections, 
161. 

supervisory  systems,  181. 
tests  of  gate  valves  for, 
145. 

underground  pipes,  149. 
underground  valves,  1 44. 
water  supplies,  151. 


Belt  holes,  186. 

Blaugas,  28. 

Bleaching,  57. 

Blower    systems    for    heating,    ventilating, 

stock  and  refuse  conveying,  64-65. 
Boilers,  steam,  73. 

explosion,  precautions  of,  74. 
in  connectionwith  fire  pumps, 
156. 

upright,  75. 
Breeching,  furnace,  46. 
Bronze  powders,  104. 
Brooders,  56. 
Buffing  wheels,  66. 

c 

Calcium  carbide,  26. 
Candles,  32. 

Carbon  dioxide  as  a  refrigerating  medium. 

82. 
Care  and  Maintenance,  107. 

ash  cans,  refuse  barrels,  and  recepta- 
cles, 1  12. 
Christmas  trees,  1  15. 
holiday  and  other  displays,  safeguards, 

metal  lockers,  1 13. 

"  no  smoking  '*  precautions,  1 1 3. 

safety  volatile  oil  cans.  1 12. 

waste  cans.  111. 
Check  valves,  145. 
Chemical  engines  on  wheels,  177. 
Chemical  fire  extinguishers,  1 76. 


192 


INDEX 


Chemicals,  85. 

rendered  hazardous  by  water  of 
moisture,  86. 
Chemicals,  paints  and  oils,  83. 
Chimneys  and  flues  in  dwellings,  1 1 7. 
care  of  old  chimneys,  1 26. 
stovepipes,  124. 
Chimneys,  furnace,  45. 

suggestions  for  the  construction 
of,  119-125. 
Chlorates,  87. 
Christmas  trees,  115. 
Cleaning  machinery,  67. 
Coffee  roasters,  62. 

Common  fire  heizards  and  their  safeguard- 
ing. 17. 
Commonly   found    miscellaneous    hazards, 
63-69. 

ashes,  cuttings  and  clippings,  69. 
blower  systems  for  heating,  ventilat- 
ing, stock  and  refuse  conveying, 
64-65. 
buffing  wheels,  66. 
charcoal,   spontaneous    ignition   of, 

98. 
cleaning  machinery,  67. 
coal  dust,  103. 
corn  shellers,  67. 
dip  tanks,  63. 
drip  cups  and  pans,  67. 
egg  candling,  68. 
explosives  and  fireworks,  68. 
fixed  ammunition,  68. 
mixing  and  compounding,  68. 
oily  waste  and  waste  cans,  69. 
picker  and  garnetting  rooms,  65. 
plating,  64. 

testing  by  gasoline,  67. 
workmen's  clothes,  69. 
Compressed  or  liquid  gas,  28. 
Compressor,  combination  air,  162. 
Core  ovens,  54. 
Corn  shellers,  67. 
Crude  oil,  3 1 . 
Cupolas,  54. 
Cut-outs,  22. 

D 

Dip  tanks,  63. 

Displays  for  holidays,  etc.,  115. 
Drip  cups  and  pans,  67. 
Dry  closet  systems,  52. 


Dry  pipe  valves,  147. 
Dry  rooms,  59. 

sprinklers,  175. 
Ductless   heating  and  ventilating   systems, 
52. 

Dust  explosions,  101-102. 

in  miscellaneous  substances, 
103. 
Dwelling  house  hazards,  1 27- 1 34. 
family  garage,  1 33. 
fire  protection,  133. 
gasoline     and     explosives, 

132. 
general  suggestions,  134. 
heating  hazards,  131. 
housekeeping,  129. 
lighting  hazards,  1 30. 
matches,  130. 
smoking,  130. 
stoves,  132. 

E 

Effect  of  continuous  heat  upon  heating  de- 
vices, 36. 
Egg  candling,  68. 
Electric,  heating  devices,  23,  131. 
irons,  48. 
motors,  77. 
power,  75-77. 
Electrical  fittings,  list  of,  15. 
Electrically  driven  fire  pumps,  1 57. 
Electricity,  lighting  by,  2 1 ,  131. 
Elevators,  186. 
Enameling  ovens,  57-59. 
Engines,  gas  and  gasoline,  77-79. 
Essential  points  for  inspector  and  property 

owner,  109. 
Elxhaust  pipes  from  gas  and  gasoline   en- 
gines, 78. 
Elxperimental  work  (chemical),  89. 
Elxplosions,  dust,  101-102. 
coal  dust,  103. 
smoke,  105. 
Elxplosives,  68. 
Elxtinguishers,  chemical  fire,  1 76. 


Fireplaces,  123. 

Fireproof  coating  mixtures,  1 

Fireproofing  chemicals,  1 89. 


193 


Fireworks,  68. 

Fire  appliances,  list  of,  15. 

Fire  doors  and  shutters,  material  of,  183. 

Fire  protection  and  its  broad  meaning,  3. 

Fire  protection  and  upkeep.  135. 

Fire  protection  in  general,  165-189. 

care  of   fire  appliances   in  winter, 

182. 
chemical  fire  extinguishers.  1 76. 
fireproof  coating  mixtures.  1 89. 
hose  and  equipment  for  yard  use, 

167. 
inside  standpipe  and  hose  systems, 

169-173. 
maintenance     of     fire     doors    and 

shutters,  183. 
night  w^atchman,  1 77. 
open  sprinklers,  173. 
scuppers,  189. 
signaling  systems.  1 79. 
skids  and  raised  platforms,  189. 
stairways,    elevators    and    vertical 

shaft  enclosures,  185. 
steam  jets  and  dry  room  sprinklers, 

175. 
tarpaulins  and  blankets,  187. 
water    casks    and    pails:    sawdust 

and  bicarbonate  of  soda,  177. 
whitewash  coating  as  a  fire  retard- 
ant,  188. 
wired     glass     windows     in     metal 

frame  and  sash,  184. 
yard  hydrants.  167. 
Fire  pumps.  1 54, 
Fires  due  to  heat  absorption,  36. 
Flashlight  powders,  105. 
Flexible  tubing  for  gas  connections,  25. 
Flues.  120-125. 

furnace,  45. 
Foreword,  5. 
Forges,  54. 

Freezing,  protection  of  apparatus  from,  1 82. 
Fruit  ripening,  56. 

Furnaces  or  heating  devices  of  a  fixed  or 
stationary  character,  37. 
Grading  of,  38. 
low,  40. 
medium,  41. 
high.  42. 

•        setting,  mounting  and  clearance  of, 
42. 


important   features  for  general   in- 
stallation of.  43. 
special  notes  on.  44. 
Furnaces,  hand  or  movable.  47. 

stacks,  chimneys  and  flues  for,  45. 
Fuel  oil,  for  domestic  use,  79. 

under  boilers  and  furnaces.  79. 
Fusing  point  of  metals,  38. 


Garage,  the  family,  1 33. 
Gas.  acetylene,  26. 

Blaugas,  28. 

compressed  or  liquid.  28. 

(natural)  floor  heaters.  52. 

jets.  25. 

lighting,  23.  130. 

meters.  24. 

Pintsch.  28. 

pressure  regulations  of,  24. 

public  supply,  artificial  and  natural,  23. 

shut-off  valves.  24. 
Gas  and  gasoline  engines,  77,  79. 
Gas,    oil,  mechanicjJ   and   chemical   appli- 
ances, list  of,  1 6. 
Gasoline  gas  machines,  32. 
Gasoline,  storage  and  handling.  9 1 . 
testing  by.  67. 
vapor,  31. 
Gate  valves  and  fittings  for  automatic  sprin- 
klers. 143. 
Gate  valves,  testing  of.  145. 
Generating  rooms.  65. 
Generator,  acetylene  gas.  27. 
Grain  bleachers.  57. 
Gravity  tanks,  1 58. 
Gun  cotton,  soluble,  88. 


Hand  or  movable  furnaces  or  heaters,  47. 
Hazards,  commonly  found,  miscellaneous, 
63-69. 

chemicals,  paints,  oils  and  inflam- 
mable volatiles,  85. 
dwelling  house.  127. 
heating.  33, 
power,  7 1 . 
Heat,  absorption,  35. 
conveyors.  50. 
radiation  and  conduction.  35. 


194 


Heaters,  gas  (natural)  floor,  52. 
Heating  devices,  electric,  23. 
Heating  hazards,  33. 

in  dwellings,  131. 
Holiday  decorations,  115- 
Hose  and  equipment  for  yard  use,  167. 
Hot  air,  ducts,  50. 

furnaces,  51. 
Hot  water  furnaces,  5 1 . 
Housekeeping  in  dwellings,  1 29. 
Hydrants,  roof,  1 70. 
yard,  167. 


Incubators,  56. 

Indicator  posts  for  automatic  sprinkler  sys- 
tems, 144. 
Inflammable  volatiles,  90. 

storage  and  handling 
of,  91. 
Inside  stsmdpipe  and  hose  systems,  1 69. 
Inspections,  by  underwriters,  1 6. 
important  items  of,  1 3. 
purpose  of,  12. 

systematic  plan  for  making,  1 1 . 
Inspector,  conduct  of,  12. 

qualifications   for   the  successful, 

II. 
report  of,  1 4. 
essential  points  for,  1 09. 
testing  of  apparatus  by,  13. 
Insulation    of    combustible    materied     from 
furnaces,  44. 


Japan  ovens,  57-59. 
Jets,  gas,  25. 

steam,  175. 


K 


Kerosene  and  kerosene  vapor,  29. 
Kerosene  distributing  systems,  3 1 . 
Kettles,  melting  and  rendering,  55. 
Kilns,  dry,  60-61. 
Kitchen  ranges  and  their  ventilation,  49. 


Label  service  of  the  Underwriters'  Labora- 
tories, 15-16. 
"  Labeled  "  devices,  15. 


Lacquering  ovens,  58, 

Lacquers,  92. 

Lamps,  kerosene,  30,  130. 

Lanterns,  32. 

Lighting,  hazards,  1 9. 

acetylene  gas,  26. 

compressed  or  liquid  gas,  28. 

electric,  23,  131. 

gas,  26,  130. 

gasoline  vapor,  3 1 . 

hazards  in  dwellings,  1 30. 

kerosene  and  kerosene  vapor,  29, 
130. 
Linoleum,  spontaneous  ignition  of,  99. 
Liquid  gases,  28. 

storzige  cylinders  for,  28. 
Lockers,  metal,  1 13. 
Lumber  drying,  60-61 . 


M 

Manual  fire  alarm  systems,  180. 
Matches,  130. 
Metal,  fusing  point  of,  38. 
Metallic  powders,  1 04. 

bronze,  104. 

flashlight,  105. 
Meters,  gas,  24. 

Miscellaneous  stationary  heating  devices  re- 
quiring special  treatment,  49-63. 

autogenous  welding,  53. 

bleaching,  57. 

coffee  and  peanut  roaster,  62. 

core  ovens,  54. 

cupolas,  54. 

dry  rooms,  59. 

ductless  heating  and  ventilating  and 
dry  closet  system,  52. 

forges,  54. 

fruit  ripening,  56. 

gas  (natural)  floor  heaters,  52. 

grain  bleachers,  57. 

hot  air  ducts  and  heat  conveyors,  50. 

hot  air,  hot  water  and  low  pressure 
steam  heating  furnaces,  5 1 . 

incubators  and  brooders,  56. 

japan  and  enameling  ovens,  57,  59. 

kitchen  ranges  and  their  ventilation, 
49. 

lumber  drying  and  dry  kilns,  60,  61. 


INDEX 


195 


melting  and  rendering  ketdes,  55. 

smokehouses,  62. 

steam  chest  and  bending.  62. 

steam  mains  and  steatn  pipes,  53. 

stoves,  large  coal  or  wood  burning 
and  busheling,  51. 
"  Moist  air  kilns,"  61 . 
Monitor  noz2les,  1 70. 
Motors,  factory,  77. 

N 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  Regu- 
lations of,  14. 
Natural  gas,  23. 

wells,  private,  25,  79. 
Nitrates,  87. 
Nitro-cellulose,  88. 
Night  watchman,  177. 
"No  smoking"  signs,  1 14. 

o 

Oil,  crude,  31.79. 

fuel,  79-80. 

kerosene,  30-31. 
Ovens,  core,  54. 

japan  and  enameling,  57-79. 


Pails,  water,  177. 
Paints  and  oils,  91 . 

stock  room  precautions,  92. 
Peanut  roasters,  62. 
Phosphorus,  86. 
Picric  acid,  88. 
Picker  rooms,  65. 
Pintsch  gas,  28. 
Pipes,  underground  for  automatic  sprinkler 

systems,  149. 
Platforms,  raised,  189. 
Plating,  64. 

Portable  watch  clocks  for  watchmen,  181. 
Potassium  chlorate,  87. 
Power  hazards,  71. 

electric,  75-77. 
Pressure,  gas,  24. 

tanks,  160. 
Private  water  supplies,  1 54. 

electrically  driven  fire  pumps,  1 57. 


gravity  tanks.  1 58. 

pressure  tanks,  160. 

rotary  fire  pumps,  1 58. 

steam  boilers,  connection  with,  1 56. 

steam  fire  pumps,  155. 
Property  owner,  essential  points  for,  109. 
Public  water  supplies.  151. 

gravity.  152. 

gravity  system  of  continuous  pumping 
and  auxiliary  storage,  1 52. 

pressure  supply,  1 53. 

testing  and  gauges,  1 53. 
Pumps,  steam  fire,  155. 

electrically  driven  fire,  157. 
rotary,  158. 

R 

Radiation  and  conduction  of  heat,  35. 
Refrigeration,  81. 

Refuse  barrels  and  receptacles,  1 1 2. 
Regulations  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire 

Underwriters,  14. 
Repair  of  old  chimneys,  1 26. 
Report,  inspectors,  14. 

Risers  for  automatic  sprinkler  systems,  142. 
Rfcof  hydrants,  1 70. 
Roasters,  coffee  and  peanut,  62. 
Rotary  pumps,  1 58. 


Safety  volatile  oil  cans,  1 1 2. 
I    Sawdust  and  bicarbonate  of  soda,  177. 
Scuppers,  189. 

Setting,  mounting  and  clearance,  fixed  fur- 
naces, 40-44. 
Signaling  systems,  1 79. 

automatic  fire  alarm  and  thermostats, 

180. 
automatic  journal  alarm,  180. 
automatic  sprinkler  alarm  and  super- 
visory, 181. 
local  sprinkler  alarm,  181. 
manual  fire  alarm,  1 80. 
watchman's  time  recording  apparatus, 

180. 
water  motor  sprinkler  alarm,  181 . 
Skids.  189. 
Smokehouses,  73. 
Smokeproof  stair  tower.  185. 
Smoke  explosions.  105. 


196 


Smoking,  130. 

precautions  against,  1  1 3. 
Sprinklers,  dry  room,  175. 

open,  173. 
Spontaneous  ignition,  95-100. 

precautions  to  be  observed,  97. 
substances  subject  thereto,  97. 
Stacks,  furnace,  45. 

metal,  46. 
Stairways,  185. 
Standard  regulations,  14. 
Standpipes,  inside  hose  systems,  1 69. 
Stationary  furnaces,  37. 
Steam  boilers,  73. 

precautions      against      explo- 
sions of,  74. 
Steam  chest  and  bending,  62. 
Steam  fire  pumps,  1 55. 
Steam  heating  furnaces,  low  pressure,  5 1 . 
Steam  jets,  175. 

Steam  mains  and  steam  pipes,  53. 
Steamer  connections,  161. 
Storage  cylinders  for  liquid  gas,  28. 
Stovepipes,  124. 
Stoves,  in  dwelling  houses,  132. 

large    coal     or    w^ood    burning    and 
busheling,  51. 
Sulphur,  86. 
Switches,  22. 


Tanks,  gravity,  158. 

pressure,  160.  • 

Tarpaulins,  187. 

Testing  of  apparatus  by  inspector,  1 3. 
Thermostat  alarm  systems,  1 80. 


To  the  inspector  and  property  owner,  11-14 
Torches,  32. 
Transformers,  76. 


u 


Underwriters'    Laboratories   and    the    label 

service,  15-16. 
Upright  steam  boilers,  75. 


Valves,   alarm   to  automatic  sprinkler  sys- 
tems, 148. 

check,  145. 

dry  pipe,  147. 

gas  shut-off,  24. 

gate,  143. 
Vertical  shaft  openings,  186. 
Volatiles,  inflammable,  90. 

w 

Waste  cans.  111. 

Watchman,  night,  1 77. 
records,  1 1 0. 
time  recording  apparatus,  1 80. 

Water  casks  and  pails,  177. 

Water  supplies  to  automatic  sprinkler  sys- 
tems, 151. 

Whitewash  coating  as  a  fire  retardant,  1 88. 

Windows,  wired  glass  w^ith  metal  frame  and 
sash,  184. 

Wiring  for  electric  lighting,  22. 


Yard  hydrants,  1 67. 


FIELD    PRACTICB  197 


National  Fire  Protection  Association 

Executive  Office,  87  Milk  Street,  Boston 


ACTIVE    MEMBERS 

American  Institute  of  Architects. 

American  Institute  of  Consulting  Engineers. 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 

American  Institute  of  Heating  and  Ventilating  Engineers. 

American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers. 

American  Concrete  Institute. 

American  Gas  Institute. 

American  Electric  Railway  Association. 

American  Warehousemen's  Association. 

Alabama  Fire  Prevention  Society. 

Arkansas  Actuarial  Bureau. 

Arkansas  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Associated  Factory  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Co's.  Inspection  Bureau. 

Associated  Metal  Lath  Manufacturers. 

Association  of  American  Portland  Cement  Manufacturers. 

Association  of  Fire  Underwriters  of  "Baltimore  City. 

Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  of  Allegheny  County. 

Board  of  Fire  Underwiters  of  the  Pacific. 

Board  of  Fiie  Underwriters  of  the  Territory  of  Hawaii. 

Boston  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

Buffalo  Association  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

Bureau  for  Safe  Transportation  of  Explosives. 

Canadian  Fire  Underwriters'  Association. 

Canadian  Manufacturers'  Association. 

Chicago  Board  of  Underwriters  of  Chicago. 

Cincinnati  Fire  Prevention  Bureau. 

Cleveland  Inspection  Bureau. 

Cotton  Insurance  Association. 

Electrical  Supply  Jobbers  Association. 

Factory  Insurance  Association. 

Factory  Mutual  Laboratories. 

Fire  Underwriters'  Electrical  Bureau. 

Fire  Underwriters'  Inspection  Bureau. 

Florida  Fire  Prevention  Societj'. 

Georgia  Fire  Prevention  Society. 

Gypsum  Industries  Association. 

Illinois  Inspection  Bureau. 

Illinois  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 


198  FIELD    PRACTICE 

Independent  Petroleum  Marketers'  Association  of  U.  S.,  Tlie 

Indiana  Inspection  Bureau. 

Indiana  State  Fire  Prevention  Association, 

Institute  of  Makers  of  Explosives. 

Insurance  Association  of  Providence. 

International  Acetylene  Association. 

International  Association  of  Fire  Engineers. 

International  Association  of  Municipal  Electricians. 

Iowa  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Kansas  Inspection  and  Fire  Prevention  Office. 

Kentucky  Actuarial  Bureau. 

Kentucky  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Louisiana  Fire  Prevention  Bureau. 

Louisiana  State  Society  for  the  Reduction  of  Fire  Waste. 

Mainland  Fire  Underwriters'  Association  of  British  Columbia. 

Massachusetts  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Union. 

Michigan  Inspection  Bureau. 

Michigan  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Millers'  National  Federation. 

Milwaukee  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

Minnesota  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Mississippi  Inspection  and  Advisory  Rating  Company, 

Mississippi  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Fires. 

Missouri  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Missouri  Inspection  Bureau, 

Mutual  Fire  Prevention  Bureau. 

National  Association  of  Building  Owners  and  Managers. 

National  Association  of  Credit  Men. 

National  Association  of  Electrical  Inspectors. 

National  Association  of  Insurance  Agents,  The, 

National  Association  of  Manufacturers  of  United  States. 

National  Associat'n  of  Master  Gravel  and  Slag  Roofers  of  America. 

National  Automatic  Sprinkler  Association, 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

National  Convention  of  Insurance  Commissioners, 

National  Electrical  Contractors'  Association. 

National  Electric  Light  Association. 

National  Founders'  Association. 

National  Hardware  Association  of  U.  S.,  The 

National  Implement  and  Vehicle  Association. 

National  Lumber  Manufacturers'  Association. 

National  Paint,  Oil  and  Varnish  Association. 

National  Wholesale  Druggists'  Association. 

National  Wholesale  Grocers'  Association. 

Nebraska  Inspection  Bureau. 

Nebraska  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

New  Brunswick  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

New  England  Bureau  of  United  Inspection. 


FIELD    PRACTICE  ]09 

New  England  Insurance  Exchange. 

New  Hampshire  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

New  Jersey  Schedule  Rating  Expert's  Office. 

New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

New  York  Fire  Insurance  Exchange. 

North  Carolina  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

North  Dakota  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Nova  Scotia  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

Ohio  Inspection  Bureau. 

Ohio  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Oklahoma  Inspection  Bureau. 

Oklahoma  State  Fire  Prevention  Association.  , 

Ontario  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Philadelphia  Fire  Underwriters'  Association. 

Philadelphia  Suburban  Underwriters'  Association. 

Rocky  Mountain  Fire  Underwriters'  Association. 

South  Carolina  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

South  Dakota  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

South-Eastern  Underwriters'  Association. 

Southern  Cypress  Manufacturers'  Association. 

St.  Louis  Fire  Prevention  Bureau. 

Suburban  Fire  Insurance  Exchange. 

Tennessee  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Tennessee  Inspection  Bureau. 

Texas  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

The  Union. 

Underwriters'  Association  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

Underwriters'  Association  of  the  Middle  Department. 

Underwriters'  Association  of  New  York  State. 

Underwriters'  Bureau  of  Middle  and  Southern  States. 

Underwriters'  Bureau  of  New  England. 

Underwriters'  Laboratories,  Inc. 

Vancouver  Island  Fire  Underwriters'  Association. 

Virginia  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Western  Actuarial  Bureau  (Fire). 

Western  Canada  Fire  Underwriters'  Association. 

Western  Factory  Insurance  Association. 

Western  Sprinklered  Risk  Association. 

West  Virginia  Inspection  Bureau, 

West  Virginia  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

Wisconsin  Inspection  Bureau. 

Wisconsin  State  Fire  Prevention  Association. 


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